National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey

People aged 18 years and over were asked how often they were able to access healthy and nutritious foods in the last four weeks. If not always able to, they were also asked the reasons why.

People aged 18 years and over living in non-remote areas were also asked about the reasons they choose the food and drinks they usually consume.

All people aged 2 years and over were asked if they:

• drink tap water at home
• experienced any barriers to drinking tap water at home in the last 12 months and, if so, what barriers they experienced.

This analysis excludes people aged 18 years and over who were not present at interview.

More than six in ten (63.8%) people aged 18 years and over were always able to access healthy and nutritious foods when they wanted to in the last four weeks. People living in non-remote areas were more likely to report always being able to access healthy and nutritious foods than people living in remote areas (68.3% compared to 40.0%).

Among people who were not always able to access healthy and nutritious foods when they wanted to in the last four weeks, six in ten (61.2%) reported cost as their main barrier. This was three times higher than the proportion of people who reported availability (20.3%) as their main barrier.

Cost was the most common barrier people experienced to accessing healthy and nutritious foods, with similar proportions for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (59.4% and 63.6%).

There were no statistically significant differences in the survey data for any of the main barriers to accessing healthy and nutritious foods experienced by people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas.

For information about household food security status, see the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2022–23.

People aged 18 years and over living in non-remote areas were asked for the main reason they chose the food and drinks that they usually consumed. The most common reasons were:

• cost (29.4%)
• taste (22.8%)
• convenience (18.2%)
• health reasons (17.8%).

Tap water may not always be available or may be unsafe to drink in some areas of Australia, particularly remote areas[5]. In these situations, people may have to buy bottled water or other drinks, which are more expensive and harder to access than tap water[2][5].

Eight in ten (79.7%) people aged 2 years and over drank tap water at home. This included water sourced from a town or community water supply, tanks, springs, wells, bores or other sources.

The proportion of people who drank tap water at home was:

• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (84.4% compared to 77.4%)
• similar between males and females (82.4% and 77.3%)
• similar between people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (79.6% and 80.8%).

Two in ten (20.1%) people aged 2 years and over experienced barriers to drinking tap water at home in the last 12 months. This proportion was similar by remoteness.

Among people who experienced barriers to drinking tap water, the main barriers were:

• taste (50.9%)
• safety concerns (27.5%)
• appearance (7.0%).

There were no statistically significant differences in the survey data for the main barriers to drinking tap water experienced by people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas.

Food and drinks reported by people were classified according to the AUSNUT (AUStralian Food and NUTrient Database) 2023 food and supplement classification developed by Food Standards Australia New Zealand.

The AUSNUT classification assigns each food a unique code, which can be grouped with other foods that share similar ingredients into minor, then sub-major, and finally major food groups. There are 23 major food groups and one dietary supplements group in the AUSNUT classification.

The same ingredient can be found across various AUSNUT food groups. This means that any one food group will not capture the total consumption of a particular ingredient.

For example, dairy milk is primarily captured in the Milk products and dishes major food group, including when a person reported consuming milk by itself, cheese, yoghurt, ice cream or milkshakes. However, milk consumption would also be captured in other food groups such as Non-alcoholic beverages (e.g. in flat white coffee) or Cereal based products and dishes (e.g. in porridge or quiche).

For more information about the application of AUSNUT in this analysis, see Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study (IHMHS): Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Statistics presented in this analysis include the:

• proportion of people who consumed foods on the day before their interview
• average (mean) amount of foods consumed by all people (including people who did not report consuming those foods on the day before their interview)
• median amount of foods consumed by only people who reported consuming those foods on the day before their interview.

Some AUSNUT food group names have been abbreviated in this publication for ease of reading. These are outlined in the following table.

For this analysis, the following minor food groups in Cereal-based mixed dishes include food both prepared at or outside the home:

• Pizza
• Sandwiches and filled rolls
• Burgers
• Pasta/noodle dishes
• Rice based dishes.

In 2023, people aged 2 years and over consumed an average of around 3.2 kg of food and drinks on the day before their interview, a lot of which was Water (42.4%, or 1.4 kg). The average amount of food and drinks consumed was higher for:

• males than females (3.4 kg compared to 3.0 kg)
• people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (3.4 kg compared to 2.8 kg)
• people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (3.2 kg compared to 2.9 kg).

Most food and drinks consumed (95.6%) came from 8 AUSNUT major food groups. On the day before their interview, people aged 2 years and over consumed an average of:

• 2,000 g of Non-alcoholic beverages, which included 1,400 g (1.4 L) of Water
• 240 g of Cereal based products and dishes
• 200 g of Milk products and dishes
• 140 g of Meat and poultry products and dishes
• 140 g of Vegetable products and dishes
• 120 g of Cereals and grains
• 100 g of Alcoholic beverages
• 90 g of Fruit products and dishes.

The average daily consumption of food and drinks increased from 3.0 kg in 2012–13 to 3.2 kg in 2023. This was driven by increased consumption of Water (from 1.0 kg to 1.4 kg). When excluding Water, people consumed less in 2023 (1.8 kg) than 2012–13 (2.0 kg).

In 2023, the most common AUSNUT major food groups people reported consuming on the day before their interview were:

• Non-alcoholic beverages, consumed by almost all (99.5%) people
• Cereal based products and dishes (76.2%)
• Cereals and grains (74.9%)
• Milk products and dishes (70.6%)
• Meat and poultry products and dishes (67.2%)
• Vegetable products and dishes (64.7%).

It is useful to consider changes in food consumption patterns over time in the context of only those who ate that food. Between 2012–13 and 2023, the median daily consumption among people who consumed:

• Alcoholic beverages decreased by 33.7% (from 1,136 g to 754 g)
• Vegetable products and dishes increased by 16.9% (from 141 g to 165 g)
• Non-alcoholic beverages increased by 22.4% (from 1,471 g to 1,800 g).

The median daily consumption of food and drinks from Fruit products and dishes, Meat and poultry products and dishes, and Milk products and dishes remained stable over this period.

Cereals and grains and Cereal based products and dishes were major contributors to total food consumption in 2012–13 and 2023; however, data are not directly comparable due to changes in reporting and classification of these food groups. For more information see IHMHS: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Non-alcoholic beverages contains 9 sub-major food groups:

• Tea
• Coffee and coffee substitutes
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices
• Fruit and vegetable drinks
• Cordials
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters
• Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks
• Water
• Other beverages/prepared beverages.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Non-alcoholic beverages for people aged 2 years and over was 2,022 g. Most of this came from Water (1,351 g), followed by:

• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (213 g)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (153 g)
• Tea (112 g)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices (92 g).

Almost all (99.5%) people consumed Non-alcoholic beverages on the day before their interview. This proportion was similar by sex, across most age groups and by remoteness. The proportion of people who consumed Non-alcoholic beverages varied by sub-major food group:

• Water (87.8%)
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (37.2%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (29.9%)
• Tea (21.4%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices (21.3%).

Children aged 2–17 years were more likely to consume the Water sub-major food group than people aged 18 years and over (96.0% compared to 83.2%). This may be partly due to people aged 18 years and over being more likely to consume water in the form of other drinks. For example, people aged 18 years and over were much more likely than children aged 2–17 years to consume Tea (31.1% compared to 4.6%).

People living in non-remote areas were:

• more likely to consume Coffee and coffee substitutes than people living in remote areas (31.8% compared to 18.9%)
• less likely to consume Tea than people living in remote areas (17.9% compared to 41.5%).

For more information on the consumption of sweetened drinks, such as cordials, soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters, see Sweetened drinks.

Cereals and grains contains 6 sub-major food groups:

• Flours, rice and grains
• Plain bread and bread rolls
• Flat breads and savoury/sweet breads
• Pasta and pasta products (without sauce)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals
• Porridge style breakfast cereals.

Foods in Cereals and grains mainly include basic cereal ingredients and are often eaten along with other foods. These are different from foods in Cereal based products and dishes which have more non-cereal ingredients and are often eaten by themselves.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Cereals and grains for people aged 2 years and over was 118 g, which included:

• Plain bread and bread rolls (40 g)
• Flours, rice and grains (26 g)
• Pasta and pasta products (without sauce) (17 g)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (15 g)
• Porridge style breakfast cereals (12 g)
• Flat breads and savoury/sweet breads (8 g).

Three in four (74.9%) people consumed food from Cereals and grains on the day before their interview. The proportion of people who consumed food from Cereals and grains was:

• similar for males and females (75.5% and 74.1%)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (80.8% compared to 71.8%)
• higher for people living in remote areas than people living in non-remote areas (83.2% compared to 73.6%).

Plain bread and bread rolls was the most common sub-major food group, consumed by 44.9% of people.

People living in remote areas were more likely than people living in non-remote areas to consume food from:

• Plain bread and bread rolls (52.8% compared to 43.8%)
• Flours, rice and grains (27.4% compared to 12.3%)
• Pasta and pasta products (without sauce) (15.6% compared to 7.4%).

Cereal based products and dishes contains 6 sub-major food groups:

• Sweet biscuits
• Savoury biscuits
• Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts
• Pastries
• Cereal-based mixed dishes, like sandwiches, pizza and sushi
• Batter-based products, like pancakes.

Foods in Cereal based products and dishes have more non-cereal ingredients and are often eaten by themselves. These are different to foods in Cereals and grains which are mainly basic cereal ingredients and are often eaten along with other foods.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Cereal based products and dishes for people aged 2 years and over was 241 g. Average daily consumption was:

• higher for males than females (272 g compared to 211 g)
• similar for children aged 2–17 years and people aged 18 years and over (254 g and 234 g)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (252 g compared to 181 g).

Around three in four (76.2%) people aged 2 years and over consumed food from Cereal based products and dishes on the day before their interview. The proportion of people who consumed this group was:

• similar for males and females (75.2% and 77.4%)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (85.5% compared to 70.9%)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (79.5% compared to 59.7%).

People living in non-remote areas were more likely than people living in remote areas to consume food from each of the Cereal based products and dishes sub-major food groups, except for Pastries and Batter-based products where the proportions were similar.

More people consumed food from Cereal-based mixed dishes than any other sub-major food group in the AUSNUT classification, excluding Water. Almost six in ten (58.5%) people aged 2 years and over reported consuming food from this group, which includes sandwiches, pasta and noodle dishes, burgers and pizza. The proportion of people who consumed food from Cereal-based mixed dishes was:

• similar for males and females (59.1% and 58.0%)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (68.1% compared to 53.3%)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (61.6% compared to 44.0%).

Within Cereal-based mixed dishes, the most common minor food groups consumed by people were:

• Sandwiches and filled rolls (35.0%)
• Pasta/noodle dishes (16.0%)
• Burgers (11.3%).

Fruit products and dishes contains 10 sub-major food groups:

• Wild harvested fruits
• Pome fruit, like apples and pears
• Berry fruit
• Citrus fruit, like oranges and mandarins
• Stone fruit, like peaches and plums
• Tropical fruit, like bananas
• Other fruit, like grapes, kiwifruit and melons
• Mixtures of two or more fruits, like fruit salads
• Dried or preserved fruit
• Fruit-based mixed dishes, like berry crumbles.

In 2023, people aged 2 years and over consumed an average of 90 g of food from Fruit products and dishes on the day before their interview. Average daily consumption was:

• similar for males and females (97 g and 84 g)
• highest for children aged 2–11 years (151 g), with all other age groups consuming similar amounts (between 65 g and 82 g)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (96 g compared to 59 g).

Around four in ten (41.9%) people consumed food from Fruit products and dishes on the day before their interview. Children aged 2–17 years were more likely to consume Fruit products and dishes than people aged 18 years and over (57.7% compared to 33.2%). This in part explains why average daily consumption was highest among children aged 2–11 years.

Within Fruit products and dishes, the most common sub-major food groups consumed by people were:

• Tropical fruit (18.5%)
• Pome fruit (14.7%)
• Citrus fruit (9.4%)
• Berry fruit (8.3%).

For people aged 18 years and over, Tropical fruit was the most common sub-major food group in Fruit products and dishes. Both children aged 2–17 years and people aged 18 years and over consumed Tropical fruit at similar rates (17.6% and 18.9%).

For children aged 2–17 years, Pome fruit was the most popular sub-major food group in Fruit products and dishes. Pome fruit was three times more popular for children than people aged 18 years and over (27.6% compared to 7.7%).

People living in non-remote areas were more likely than people living in remote areas to consume:

• Tropical fruit (19.6% compared to 12.2%)
• Pome fruit (15.8% compared to 10.3%)
• Berry fruit (9.4% compared to 3.0%).

Among people aged 2 years and over who consumed Fruit products and dishes, the median amount consumed on the day before their interview was 166 g. The median amount consumed was similar by sex, across age groups and by remoteness.

Within the Fruit products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount consumed by people who ate:

• Pome fruit was 166 g, which is about one medium apple
• Berry fruit was 63 g, or about three medium strawberries
• Citrus fruit was 80 g, slightly more than one large mandarin
• Stone fruit was 82 g, or one nectarine
• Tropical fruit was 127 g, or one medium banana
• Other fruit was 107 g, or about one kiwifruit plus seven grapes.

For information about usual daily fruit consumption and the proportion of people who met the 2013 Australian Dietary Guidelines for fruit consumption, see the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2022–23.

Meat and poultry products and dishes contains 10 sub-major food groups:

• Wild harvested meat
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed
• Mammalian game meats
• Poultry and feathered game
• Organ meats and offal products and dishes
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys
• Processed meat
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes
• Processed meat-based mixed dishes
• Poultry-based mixed dishes.

The average daily consumption of Meat and poultry products and dishes for people aged 2 years and over was 141 g. Average daily consumption was:

• similar for males and females (151 g and 130 g)
• lowest for children aged 2–11 years (97 g), with all other age groups consuming similar amounts (between 138 g and 159 g)
• higher for people living in remote areas than people living in non-remote areas (174 g compared to 135 g).

Two in three (67.2%) people aged 2 years and over consumed Meat and poultry products and dishes on the day before their interview. People living in remote areas were more likely to consume Meat and poultry products and dishes than people living in non-remote areas (74.4% compared to 66.3%). This in part explains why average daily consumption was higher in remote areas.

Within Meat and poultry products and dishes, the most common sub-major food groups consumed by people were:

• Poultry-based mixed dishes (19.7%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (17.6%)
• Poultry and feathered game (15.6%)
• Processed meat (14.9%).

Among people who consumed Meat and poultry products and dishes, the median amount consumed was 178 g. The median amount consumed was:

• higher for males than females (187 g compared to 164 g)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (188 g compared to 144 g)
• similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (176 g and 186 g).

Within the Meat and poultry products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount consumed by people who ate:

• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed was 134 g, which is about one medium lamb shank
• Poultry and feathered game was 116 g, or about one medium chicken thigh
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys was 178 g, or about two sausages
• Processed meat was 50 g, or about four slices of shaved ham
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes was 199 g, or about eight meatballs
• Poultry-based mixed dishes was 198 g, or about one large chicken schnitzel.

Milk products and dishes contains 8 sub-major groups:

• Dairy milk
• Yoghurt
• Cream
• Cheese
• Frozen milk products, like ice cream
• Custards
• Milk-based mixed dishes, like cheesecakes
• Flavoured milks and milkshakes.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Milk products and dishes by people aged 2 years and over was 195 g. Average daily consumption was:

• similar for males than females (219 g and 172 g).
• similar for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (223 g and 179 g)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (204 g compared to 145 g).

The higher consumption among people living in non-remote areas compared to people living in remote areas was because they consumed more:

• Flavoured milks and milkshakes (51 g compared to 16 g)
• Yoghurt (16 g compared to 5 g)
• Frozen milk products (11 g compared to 4 g).

Seven in ten (70.6%) people consumed food from Milk products and dishes on the day before their interview. This proportion was similar by sex, across most age groups and by remoteness.

Within Milk products and dishes, Dairy milk was the most common sub-major food group, consumed by more than half (51.5%) of people.

Among people who consumed Milk products and dishes, the median amount consumed was 197 g. The median amount consumed was:

• similar for males and females (205 g compared to 190 g)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (247 g compared to 169 g)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (206 g compared to 130 g).

Within the Milk products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount consumed among people who ate:

• Dairy milk was 190 g, which is about three-quarters of a cup of milk
• Yoghurt was 140 g, or about one large pouch of yoghurt
• Cheese was 27 g, or about four cracker-sized cheese slices
• Frozen milk products was 72 g, or about one ice cream stick.

Vegetable products and dishes contains 10 sub-major food groups:

• Wild harvested vegetables
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes
• Broccoli and similar vegetables
• Carrot and similar root vegetables
• Leaf and stalk vegetables, like lettuce and spinach
• Peas and beans
• Tomato and tomato products
• Other fruiting vegetables, like pumpkin, zucchini or mushrooms
• Other vegetables and combinations, like onion, garlic, or peas and corn
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes, like coleslaw or zucchini slice.

In 2023, people aged 2 years and over consumed an average of 135 g of food from Vegetable products and dishes on the day before their interview. Average daily consumption was:

• similar for males and females (137 g and 133 g)
• lowest for children aged 2–11 years (91 g), with all other age groups consuming similar amounts (between 140 g and 167 g)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (142 g compared to 99 g).

The higher consumption among people living in non-remote areas compared to people living in remote areas was because they consumed more:

• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (68 g compared to 51 g)
• Other fruiting vegetables (13 g compared to 7 g).

Around two in three (64.7%) people aged 2 years and over consumed food from Vegetable products and dishes on the day before their interview. Similar proportions of children aged 2–17 years (65.6%) and people aged 18 years and over (64.6%) consumed Vegetable products and dishes, despite differences in their average amounts consumed.

Potatoes and potato products and dishes was the most common sub-major food group, consumed by more than one in three (36.9%) people. The proportion of people who consumed this group was:

• higher for males than females (41.1% compared to 32.7%)
• similar for children aged 2–17 years and people aged 18 years and over (38.6% and 36.2%)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (38.8% compared to 26.2%).

Among people who consumed Vegetable products and dishes, the median amount consumed was 165 g. The median amount consumed was:

• similar for males and females (179 g and 158 g)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (181 g compared to 136 g)
• similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (170 g and 142 g).

Within the Vegetable products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount consumed among people who ate:

• Potatoes and potato products and dishes was 153 g, which is about a medium serve of takeaway chips
• Broccoli and similar vegetables was 106 g, or about five medium cooked broccoli florets
• Carrot and similar root vegetables was 53 g, slightly more than three carrot sticks
• Other fruiting vegetables was 74 g, or about half a cob of corn
• Other vegetables and combinations was 72 g, or about half a medium raw onion
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes was 104 g, or about half a bowl of coleslaw.

For information about usual daily vegetable consumption and the proportion of people who met the 2013 Australian Dietary Guidelines for vegetable consumption, see the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2022–23.

Alcoholic beverages contains 6 sub-major food groups:

• Beers
• Wines
• Spirits
• Cider and perry
• Other alcoholic beverages
• De-alcoholised beverages.

In 2023, more than one in ten (14.4%) people aged 18 years and over consumed Alcoholic beverages on the day before their interview. The proportion of people aged 18 years and over who consumed Alcoholic beverages:

• decreased from 18.6% in 2012–13 to 14.4% in 2023
• was more than twice as high for males than females (20.5% compared to 8.8%)
• was more than twice as high for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (15.8% compared to 7.4%).

Among people aged 18 years and over who consumed Alcoholic beverages, the median amount consumed was 754 g, or around two bottles of beer.

For more information on alcohol as a macronutrient, see Energy and macronutrient intake. For more information about Alcohol consumption assessed against the 2020 Australian Adult Guideline, see the National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey 2022–23.

For this analysis, sweetened drinks are categorised by type of sweetener:

• sugar-sweetened drinks, which contain added sugar (typically sucrose)
• intense-sweetened drinks, which contain artificial sweeteners.

The types of drinks in this analysis include:

• cordials
• soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (including kombucha and commercial iced teas)
• electrolyte and energy drinks, and fortified waters (including flavoured packaged water)
• fruit and vegetable drinks (including aloe vera juice).

Some examples of drinks not included in this analysis are:

• coffee and tea
• 100% fruit and vegetable juices
• hot chocolate and chocolate powder drinks.

These groups are different from the Non-alcoholic beverages in Food and drink consumption.

For more information about sweetened drink consumption, see IHMHS: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Statistics presented in this analysis include the:

• proportion of people who consumed sweetened drinks on the day before their interview
• median amount consumed only by people who reported consuming sweetened drinks.

Almost half (46.6%) of people aged 2 years and over consumed sweetened drinks on the day before their interview in 2023. This included:

• four in ten (39.6%) people who consumed sugar-sweetened drinks
• one in ten (10.1%) people who consumed intense-sweetened drinks.

The proportion of people who consumed sweetened drinks was similar between males and females (47.9% and 45.7%). Consumption was highest for children aged 12–17 years (65.2%) and people aged 18–29 years (54.1%) and 30–49 years (54.8%).

Consumption of:

• sugar-sweetened drinks was higher for children aged 12–17 years (61.6%) than any other age group
• intense-sweetened drinks was around three times higher for people aged 18 years and over than for children aged 2–17 years (13.4% compared to 4.4%).

The proportion of people 2 years and over who consumed:

• sugar-sweetened drinks was similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (39.8% and 38.4%)
• intense-sweetened drinks was higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (10.9% compared to 7.1%).

For people aged 2 years and who reported consuming sweetened drinks, the median volume consumed was 375 mL for sugar-sweetened and 375 mL for intense-sweetened drinks, which is equivalent to one can of soft drink for both.

Almost four in ten (37.9%) people aged 2 years and over consumed soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters on the day before their interview. This was the most common type of sweetened drink consumed, and was followed by:

• cordials (9.2%)
• energy drinks (2.6%)
• electrolyte drinks (2.0%).

The proportion of people who reported consuming soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters remained steady between 2012–13 and 2023 (37.2% and 37.9%). Over the same time, the proportion of people who reported consuming cordials decreased from 14.7% to 9.2%.

Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters

Almost four in ten (37.9%) people aged 2 years and over consumed soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters on the day before their interview. The proportion was:

• similar between males and females (38.1% and 37.3%)
• highest for children aged 12–17 years (49.2%) and people aged 18–29 years (44.4%) and 30–49 years (46.6%)
• similar between people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (38.9% and 33.3%).

A higher proportion of people consumed sugar-sweetened soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (30.6%) than intense-sweetened soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (9.1%). The proportion of people who consumed:

• sugar-sweetened soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters was similar between people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (31.2% and 27.7%)
• intense-sweetened soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters was higher for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (9.7% compared to 6.0%).

Cordials

Almost one in ten (9.2%) people aged 2 years and over consumed cordials on the day before their interview. The proportion was:

• similar between males and females (10.2% and 8.2%)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than for people aged 18 years and over (12.1% compared to 7.3%)
• lower for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (7.9% compared to 14.0%).

The proportion of people who consumed sugar-sweetened cordials (7.8%) was six times higher than the proportion of people who consumed intense-sweetened cordials (1.3%).

Electrolyte and energy drinks, and fortified waters

A small proportion (4.5%) of people aged 2 years and over consumed electrolyte and energy drinks, and fortified waters on the day before their interview. The proportion was:

• similar between males and females (5.4% and 3.6%)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than for children aged 2–17 years (5.8% compared to 2.5%)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (5.2% compared to 1.5%).

Free sugars

People aged 2 years and over consumed an average of 23.6 g of free sugars from sweetened drinks on the day before their interview, which is about five and a half teaspoons of sugar. Over four of these teaspoons (18.3 g) came from soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters.

More than one third (37.0%) of all (total) free sugars were consumed from sweetened drinks. The proportion of free sugars from sweetened drinks was similar for males and females (37.9% and 35.9%), and higher for people aged 18 years and over than for children aged 2–17 years (41.6% compared to 29.1%). For more information about total free sugars consumption, see Energy and macronutrient intake.

Average daily intake of free sugars from sweetened drinks was similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (23.7 g and 23.5 g). However, the contribution to total free sugars intake from sweetened drinks was higher for people living in remote areas than people living in non-remote areas (43.7% compared to 36.0%), due to their lower total free sugars intake.

Caffeine

People aged 2 years and over consumed an average of 22 mg of caffeine from sweetened drinks daily, most of which (18 mg) was from soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters. Caffeine from sweetened drinks contributed to 17.4% of the total caffeine intake.

Daily caffeine intake from sweetened drinks was lower for children aged 2–17 years than for people aged 18 years and over (12 mg compared to 28 mg). Contribution to total caffeine intake from sweetened drinks was higher for children (48.8%) than for people aged 18 years and over (14.9%) who also sourced more caffeine from other drinks such as tea and coffee. For more information on total caffeine intake, see Selected micronutrients and caffeine.

The proportion of caffeine from sweetened drinks was similar for:

• males and females (19.2% and 15.7%)
• people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (17.4% and 17.1%).

In 2023, the average daily energy intake was 9,178 kilojoules (kJ) for males and 7,541 kJ for females. When comparing across age:

• people aged 2–4 years (6,494 kJ) and 65 years and over (6,404 kJ) had lower energy intakes than any other age group
• people aged 12–17 years (9,266 kJ), 18–29 years (8,829 kJ) and 30–49 years (8,879 kJ) had similar energy intakes.

People living in non-remote areas had around a 15% higher average daily energy intake than people living in remote areas (8,524 kJ compared to 7,382 kJ).

Average daily energy intake remained steady among people aged 2 years and over between 2012–13 (8,218 kJ) and 2023 (8,350 kJ). There were no significant changes over this period by sex, any age groups, or remoteness.

A person’s food intake can vary from day to day, which affects their energy intake. When people were asked if they ate a similar amount of food on the day before their interview compared to what they would normally eat:

• 70.8% of people reported consuming a similar amount of food
• 17.5% of people reported consuming less food than usual
• 10.9% of people reported consuming more food than usual.

The top AUSNUT major food groups contributing to energy intake were:

• Cereal based products and dishes (27.3%)
• Meat and poultry products and dishes (13.8%)
• Cereals and grains (13.2%)
• Non-alcoholic beverages (8.6%)
• Milk products and dishes (8.6%)
• Vegetable products and dishes (7.4%).

The contribution to energy varied between people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas for the top 3 contributing major food groups:

• Cereal based products and dishes – 28.0% for people living in non-remote areas compared to 22.6% for people living in remote areas
• Meat and poultry products and dishes – 13.1% for people living in non-remote areas compared to 18.5% for people living in remote areas
• Cereals and grains – 12.3% for people living in non-remote areas compared to 19.0% for people living in remote areas.

Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) are a set of recommendations for nutrient intake based on currently available scientific knowledge. One of these recommendations includes an Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for each macronutrient. AMDRs estimate the range of intake for each macronutrient that would allow for an adequate intake of all other nutrients while maximising general health outcomes[9].

AMDRs are presented with macronutrient intakes in this analysis to provide context for results but do not determine levels of deficiency or excessive intake. Other macronutrient NRVs have not been included in this analysis.

An imbalance among the contribution of macronutrients to energy is considered a risk factor for nutrient deficiencies and developing chronic conditions[10]. AMDRs specify the proportion of energy from each macronutrient that is recommended to reduce this risk[9].

In 2023, the average proportion of daily energy intake from:

• carbohydrate was 45.7%, within the AMDR (45%–65%)
• fat was 32.1%, within the AMDR (20%–35%)
• protein was 18.3%, within the AMDR (15%–25%)
• dietary fibre was 1.8%
• alcohol was 1.4%.

The balance of macronutrients differed between children aged 2–17 years and people aged 18 years and over, with the proportion of energy from:

• carbohydrate higher for children than people aged 18 years and over (48.0% compared to 44.3%)
• protein lower for children than people aged 18 years and over (16.6% compared to 19.2%)
• fat similar between children and people aged 18 years and over (32.6% and 31.7%).

The proportion of energy from carbohydrate for people aged 50–64 years (43.3%) was lower than the AMDR (45%–65%). The proportion for people aged 30–49 years (43.8%) and 65 years and over (44.6%) was not significantly lower than the AMDR.

The balance of macronutrients varied between people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas. For example, the average proportion of energy intake from protein was higher for people living in remote areas than for people living in non-remote areas (21.1% compared to 17.8%). This was in part due to a greater consumption of Meat and poultry products and dishes by people living in remote areas.

An increase in the proportional contribution to energy for one macronutrient means a decrease in one or more of the other macronutrients. Between 2012–13 and 2023, the average proportion of daily energy intake from:

• fat increased from 31.2% to 32.1%
• alcohol decreased from 2.0% to 1.4%
• carbohydrate, protein and dietary fibre remained steady.

Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for the body and are particularly important as fuel for brain cells. The two major types of carbohydrates are sugars and starch. Sugars are found naturally in foods such as fruit and milk products but are also added to a range of processed and refined foods[9]. Starch is found in many foods including starchy vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, peas and corn, as well as grain foods such as wheat, oats and rice.

In 2023, the average daily carbohydrate intake was 230 g and contributed to 45.7% of daily energy intake. This included:

• 102 g of sugars, contributing to 19.4% of daily energy intake
• 124 g of starch, contributing to 25.7% of daily energy intake.

People living in non-remote areas had a higher proportion of energy intake from sugars than people living in remote areas (19.8% compared to 17.2%). It was the opposite for starch, where people living in non-remote areas had a lower proportion of energy intake from starch than people living in remote areas (25.4% compared to 26.8%).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to sugar intake were:

• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (18.0%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices and Fruit and vegetable drinks (7.2% combined)
• Dairy milk (6.2%)
• Sugar, honey and syrups (6.0%)
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (4.7%)
• Flavoured milks and milkshakes (4.0%)
• Sweet biscuits (3.7%)
• Pome fruit (3.7%).

The leading sub-major food groups contributing to starch intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (27.1%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (14.7%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (9.5%)
• Flours, rice and grains (7.2%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (6.4%)
• Potato snacks (3.7%).

The average daily carbohydrate intake was steady between 2012–13 (228 g) and 2023 (230 g). However, intake for the two types of carbohydrates has changed since 2012–13, with:

• sugars intake decreasing over this period (from 111 g to 102 g).
• starch intake increasing over this period (from 113 g to 124 g).

Free sugars

Free sugars include all the added sugars put into food during their processing or preparation as well as the sugars that are naturally present in fruit and vegetable juice, syrups and honey. Sugars naturally present in unrefined foods, such as whole fruit or unflavoured milk, are not considered free sugars[11].

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that free sugars should make up less than 10% of an individual's dietary energy, and that a further reduction to less than 5% of dietary energy would provide additional health benefits[11].

In 2023, the average daily free sugar intake for people aged 2 years and over was 64 g, most of which came from added sugar (56 g, or 87.1%) rather than from juice, syrups or honey.

The average proportion of daily energy intake from free sugars was 11.8% (above the WHO recommendation), and was:

• predominantly from discretionary foods (9.4%) compared to non-discretionary foods (2.4%)
• a decrease from 14.0% in 2012–13
• higher in age groups between 12 and 49 years (between 12.3% and 13.6%)
• lower for people aged 50–64 years (10.1%) and 65 years and over (8.8%) compared to people aged between 12 and 49 years
• similar for males and females (11.5% and 12.1%)
• similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (11.9% and 11.0%).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to free sugar intake were:

• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (28.6%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices or Fruit and vegetable drinks (9.8% combined)
• Sugar, honey and syrups (9.5%)
• Sweet biscuits (5.7%)
• Cordials (4.3%)
• Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts (4.1%).

Both animal and plant foods provide protein including, meat, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, tofu, legumes, beans, nuts and seeds. Proteins consumed in the diet are broken down to make new proteins for the body or to be used as a source of energy[9].

In 2023, average daily protein intake for people aged 2 years and over was 87 g and contributed to 18.3% of energy intake. The leading sub-major food groups contributing to protein intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (23.0%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (9.3%), Pasta/noodle dishes (4.6%) and Burgers (4.3%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (8.6%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (7.6%)
• Poultry and feathered game (6.9%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (4.8%)
• Dairy milk (4.5%)
• Beef, sheep, or pork-based mixed dishes (3.9%).

The contribution from these sub-major groups differed by remoteness. For people living in non-remote areas, the proportion of protein from:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes was higher than for people living in remote areas (24.1% compared to 16.8%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed was lower than for people living in remote areas (7.6% compared to 14.3%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes was higher than for people living in remote areas (8.2% compared to 4.6%).

Fat is a concentrated source of energy and helps the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins. Fats are mainly classified as saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, or trans fatty acids depending on their chemical structure. Saturated fatty acids are mainly found in animal-based foods while mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids are mainly found in plant-based foods. Other fats in the diet include phospholipids, phytosterols and cholesterol[9].

In 2023, the average daily fat intake for people aged 2 years and over was 74 g which contributed 32.1% of daily energy intake. This included:

• 30 g of saturated fat, which contributed to 13.0% of daily energy
• 28 g of monounsaturated fat, which contributed to 11.8% of daily energy
• 10 g of polyunsaturated fat, which contributed to 4.4% of daily energy
• 1.2 g of trans fatty acids, which contributed to 0.5% of daily energy.

Fat intake has remained stable over the last decade (70 g in 2012–13 and 74 g in 2023), while its contribution to daily energy has increased from 31.2% to 32.1%. This was mainly driven by the decreases in sugars and alcohol intake over the same period, meaning fat contributed relatively more to energy in 2023 than in 2012–13.

The leading sub-major food groups contributing to total fat intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (19.3%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (6.7%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (6.0%)
• Dairy milk (5.0%)
• Potato snacks (4.3%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (3.2%)
• Pastries (3.1%)
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys (3.0%).

Eating greater amounts of saturated and trans fatty acids is linked to an increased risk of heart disease and high blood cholesterol levels. The WHO recommends that saturated and trans fatty acids together make up 10% or less of total energy intake, consistent with the AMDR for these fats[9][12]. Additionally, the WHO recommends that 1% or less of energy intake come from trans fatty acids alone[12]. In 2023, the average proportion of daily energy from:

• saturated and trans fatty acids combined was 13.6%, which is above the WHO guideline
• trans fatty acids alone was 0.5%, which is within the WHO guideline.

Discretionary foods contributed 43.6% of the average daily energy intake from saturated and trans fatty acids.

Unsaturated (mono- and polyunsaturated) fats are an important part of a healthy diet and can help reduce the risk of heart disease and lower cholesterol levels when they replace saturated fats and trans fatty acids. Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are important types of polyunsaturated fat found in legumes, some vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds[9]. In 2023:

• linoleic acid contributed 3.7% to daily energy intake, which is below the AMDR (4%–10%)
• alpha-linolenic acid contributed 0.6% to daily energy intake, which is within the AMDR (0.4%–1%).

When people aged 2 years and over were asked about what type of fat or oil they mainly used while cooking food, olive oil (46.0%) was the most common, followed by vegetable oil (21.1%) and canola oil (14.0%). These are all types of monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats.

Pure alcohol is a relatively high source of energy, second only to fat in energy density. Consumption of alcohol can be harmful to health and no level can be guaranteed as completely safe[9]. Alcohol intake as a nutrient refers to pure alcohol (ethanol). Intake estimates are calculated from alcoholic drinks or other food that contain small amounts of alcohol due to their ingredients. For information about Alcoholic beverages as a food group, see Food and drink consumption.

There is no AMDR for alcohol, however it is generally recommended to account for less than 5% of energy intake[9]. In 2023, the average daily alcohol intake for people aged 2 years and over was 4.6 g and contributed to 1.4% of daily energy intake. Contribution was minimal for children aged 2–17 years (rounded to 0.0%).

For people aged 18 years and over, the contribution to energy from alcohol was 2.2% but varied by age and sex. The contribution from alcohol was:

• higher for males (3.1%) than females (1.3%)
• lower for people aged 18–29 years (0.9%) than for people aged 30–49 years (2.5%) and 50–64 years (3.6%).

The proportion of energy from alcohol was similar for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (1.5% and 0.9%).

For the 14.4% of people aged 18 years and over who reported consuming Alcoholic beverages on the day before their interview, alcohol contributed to 14.7% of their daily energy intake. This is around three times higher than the general recommendation of 5%.

The contribution of alcohol to daily energy intake for people aged 18 years and over decreased from 3.2% in 2012–13 to 2.2% in 2023.

Discretionary foods contributed to 37.3% of the average daily energy intake in 2023, down from 40.8% in 2012–13. This was primarily due to an increase in energy intake from non-discretionary foods, rather than a decrease in energy intake from discretionary foods. Over this period, energy intake from:

• non-discretionary foods increased (from 4,863 kJ in 2012–13 to 5,237 kJ in 2023)
• discretionary foods remained steady (3,355 kJ in 2012–13 and 3,113 kJ in 2023).

The contribution to average daily energy intake from discretionary foods between 2012–13 and 2023 decreased for:

• males (from 41.4% to 36.5%)
• people aged 18–49 years (from 41.6% to 36.8%)
• people living in non-remote areas (from 42.3% to 38.0%).

Contribution to energy from discretionary foods remained steady over this period for females, all other age groups except for 18–49 years, and people living in remote areas.

In 2023, the proportion of average daily energy intake from discretionary foods was:

• similar for males and females (36.5% and 38.2%)
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (40.1% compared to 35.7%), largely due to the decrease since 2012–13 for people aged 18–49 years
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (38.0% compared to 33.0%).

More than one-tenth (12.2%) of average daily energy intake came from discretionary foods in the Cereal based products and dishes AUSNUT major food group. This included:

• 5.1% from Cereal-based mixed dishes, such as sandwiches and burgers
• 2.6% from Sweet biscuits
• 1.9% from Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts
• 1.8% from Pastries
• 0.5% from Savoury biscuits
• 0.3% from Batter-based products, such as doughnuts.

The contribution to energy from discretionary foods in Cereal based products and dishes (12.2%) was more than double the contribution of discretionary foods in any other AUSNUT major food group (each less than 5.0%).

The contribution to energy from discretionary foods in:

• Snack foods was higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (5.7% compared to 2.1%)
• Non-alcoholic beverages was higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (5.4% compared to 3.9%).

The contribution of Confectionery to average daily energy intake was almost three times higher for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (3.2% compared to 1.1%). The contribution of Fats and oils was higher for people living in remote areas than people living in non-remote areas (1.5% compared to 0.8%).

Nutrient reference values (NRVs) are a set of recommendations for nutrient intakes based on currently available scientific knowledge. For micronutrients, these recommendations may include:

• Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) – the daily amount estimated to meet the intake requirements of half the healthy individuals in a particular age, sex and life stage group.
• Suggested Dietary Target (SDT) – a daily average intake from food and drinks that may help in prevention of chronic disease[9].

EARs or SDTs are presented with micronutrient intakes in this analysis to provide context for results but do not indicate levels of deficiency or excessive intake. Other micronutrient NRVs have not been included in this analysis.

The amount of energy obtained from the food and drinks a person consumes also influences their overall micronutrient intake. It may be useful to consider micronutrient intakes in relation to energy, to help control for factors like age, sex, body weight and physical activity. Energy-adjusted intakes focus instead on the relative balance of what people eat and drink and are expressed as a nutrient amount per 1,000 kJ of energy. Both total intakes (Table 1) and energy-adjusted intakes (Table 3) for micronutrients are available in the Data downloads.

Thiamin (vitamin B1) helps the body convert food into energy for the brain, nervous system, and muscles. Thiamin is found in small quantities in a range of foods, but the main source is cereal foods. In Australia, wheat flour for bread making is fortified with thiamin[9].

In 2023, the average daily thiamin intake was:

• 1.8 milligrams (mg) for males, higher than 1.5 mg for females
• similar across age groups, ranging between 1.5 mg and 1.9 mg
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (1.7 mg compared to 1.4 mg)
• the same as 2012–13 for people aged 2 years and over (both 1.6 mg).

Males and females in all age groups had average intakes above the Estimated Average Requirement for thiamin.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to thiamin intake in 2023 were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (25.7%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (15.9%), Pizza (3.5%) and Burgers (3.4%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (15.2%)
• Yeast extracts (12.4%), such as yeast spreads like Vegemite
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (10.4%).

Average energy-adjusted thiamin intake for people aged 2 years and over remained the same between 2012–13 and 2023 (both 0.2 mg/1,000 kJ).

Vitamin B6 helps with the metabolism of protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and helps in the formation of red blood cells. It is found in many foods including organ and muscle meats, fortified breakfast cereals, and starchy vegetables[9][14]. Vitamin B6 can also be sourced from dietary supplements, either standalone or as part of a multivitamin or multimineral[14]. High doses of vitamin B6 can lead to adverse side effects, including peripheral neuropathy. This usually occurs following long-term use of medicines containing vitamin B6 and is not associated with normal dietary intake levels[15]. This analysis is based on vitamin B6 intake from consumption of food and drinks only and excludes supplements.

In 2023, the average daily vitamin B6 intake was:

• similar for males and females (1.5 mg and 1.2 mg)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (1.5 mg compared to 1.1 mg)
• higher for people aged 18–29 years (1.8 mg) and 30–49 years (1.6 mg), with progressively lower intakes for each older age group
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (1.4 mg compared to 0.9 mg)
• the same as 2012–13 for people aged 2 years and over (both 1.3 mg).

Average daily intakes for both males and females aged 50–64 years and 65 years and over were below the Estimated Average Requirement for vitamin B6.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B6 intake were:

• Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks (24.6%)
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (10.6%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (7.7%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (7.0%)
• Poultry and feathered game (5.8%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (4.5%).

For people aged 18–49 years, Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks contributed to 38.3% of vitamin B6 intake.

Folate is a B group vitamin (B9) that the body uses to make DNA and other genetic material. It is essential for healthy growth and development, particularly for the foetus in the first 3 months of pregnancy. Folate is found naturally in foods such as green leafy vegetables, fruits and grains[9]. Mandatory fortification of bread making flour with folic acid, a stable form of folate used in supplements and fortification, has been in place in Australia since 2009[16].

Dietary folate equivalents (DFE) are used to report the total amount of folate intake, to account for the different forms it is consumed in. In 2023, the average daily intake of DFE was:

• 705 micrograms (µg) for males, higher than for females (588 µg)
• similar across most age groups, ranging between 597 µg and 765 µg for males and between 499 µg and 704 µg for females
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (660 µg compared to 571 µg)
• similar to 2012–13 for people aged 2 years and over (618 µg in 2012–13 and 646 µg in 2023).

Males and females in all age groups had average intakes above the Estimated Average Requirement for DFE.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to DFE intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (30.9%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (18.7%), Burgers (6.5%) and Pizza (3.1%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (19.3%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (11.2%)
• Yeast extracts (5.5%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices (4.8%).

Average energy-adjusted DFE intake for people aged 2 years and over was steady between 2012–13 (81.7 µg/1,000 kJ) and 2023 (83.1 µg/1,000 kJ). 

In 2023, energy-adjusted DFE intake was lowest for people aged 12–17 years (72.6 µg/1,000 kJ) and 18–29 years (72.0 µg/1,000 kJ), except when compared to people aged 30–49 years (78.6 µg/1,000 kJ) where the difference was not statistically significant.

Vitamin B12 is important for several functions, such as keeping the body’s nerve and blood cells healthy. Almost all vitamin B12 comes from animal products. If left untreated, vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to anaemia, nerve damage and brain damage[9].

In 2023, the average daily vitamin B12 intake was:

• higher for males than females (4.2 µg compared to 3.2 µg)
• higher for people aged 18–29 years (4.3 µg) and 30–49 years (4.1 µg) when compared to children aged 2–17 years (3.2 µg) or people aged 65 years and over (3.1 µg)
• similar for people living in non-remote and people living in remote areas (3.7 µg and 3.9 µg).

Males and females in all age groups had average intakes above the Estimated Average Requirement for vitamin B12.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B12 intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (16.7%)
• Dairy milk (12.6%)
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys (8.4%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (7.1%)
• Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks (6.4%)
• Beef, sheep, or pork-based mixed dishes (4.7%).

The leading sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B12 intake remained similar between 2012–13 and 2023, except for Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks, which moved into the top 6 contributors in 2023 while Cheese dropped out of the top 6.

Average daily vitamin B12 intake decreased for people aged 2 years and over, from 4.4 µg in 2012–13 to 3.7 µg in 2023. Average intake decreased for people aged 2–4 years, 5–11 years, and 30–49 years and remained steady for other age groups.

Average energy-adjusted vitamin B12 intake for people aged 2 years and over declined slightly between 2012–13 (0.6 µg/1,000 kJ) and 2023 (0.5 µg/1,000 kJ).

Vitamin C is an antioxidant and supports a range of metabolic processes. Fruit and vegetables such as citrus fruit, kiwi fruit, broccoli and sprouts are good sources of vitamin C. Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy with symptoms including gingivitis, oedema, ulcers and a tendency to bruise or bleed easily[9].

In 2023, average daily vitamin C intake was:

• 86 mg, with males (85 mg) and females (87 mg) consuming similar amounts
• higher for children aged 2–17 years than people aged 18 years and over (107 mg compared to 75 mg)
• similar for people living in non-remote and people living in remote areas (88 mg and 78 mg)
• similar to 2012–13 for people aged 2 years and over (87 mg in 2012–13 and 86 mg in 2023).

Males and females in all age groups were above the Estimated Average Requirement for vitamin C, except for males aged 65 years and over.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin C intake were:

• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices and Fruit and vegetable drinks (48.4% combined)
• Citrus fruit (5.6%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (5.0%)
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (4.7%)
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes (4.5%).

Average energy-adjusted vitamin C intake for people aged 2 years and over remained about the same between 2012–13 and 2023 (10.9 mg/1,000 kJ and 10.7 mg/1,000 kJ).

Vitamin D is a hormone that helps the body to absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus. Deficiency can lead to rickets in children and osteoporosis in adults. Vitamin D is mainly sourced from exposure to sunlight, but diets including fatty fish, eggs, and fortified margarine and dairy spreads can provide limited amounts[9].

Vitamin D3 equivalents are used to report the total amount of dietary vitamin D intake, to account for the different forms in which it is consumed. In 2023, the average daily vitamin D3 equivalents intake was:

• higher for males than females (5.5 µg compared to 4.2 µg)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (5.1 µg compared to 4.4 µg)
• similar for people living in non-remote and people living in remote areas (4.8 µg and 5.2 µg).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin D3 equivalents intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (17.8%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (5.9%), Burgers (5.1%) and Pasta/noodle dishes (4.1%)
• Eggs (9.1%)
• Poultry and feathered game (8.2%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (7.4%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (7.1%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (5.3%).

Calcium is a mineral required for the growth and maintenance of the bones and teeth, as well as the proper functioning of the muscular and cardiovascular systems. Milk and milk-based foods are the richest sources of calcium, but it is also sourced from sardines and other bony fish, legumes and certain nuts. Low calcium intake is associated with low bone density (osteoporosis) which increases the risk of fractured and broken bones[9].

In 2023, average daily calcium intake was:

• higher for males than females (858 mg compared to 714 mg)
• similar across most age groups, except when comparing people aged 5–11 years to people aged 65 years and over where there was a significant difference (845 mg compared to 682 mg)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (819 mg compared to 599 mg).

Males aged 65 years and over and females in all age groups 12 years and over had average intakes below the Estimated Average Requirement for calcium.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to calcium intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (20.3%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (9.6%), Pizza (3.8%) and Burgers (3.2%)
• Dairy milk (16.1%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (6.6%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (6.1%)
• Flavoured milks and milkshakes (6.0%)
• Cheese (5.9%).

Average daily calcium intake increased from 671 mg in 2012–13 to 785 mg in 2023. Intake for people aged 18 years and over increased (from 647 mg to 786 mg) while the apparent increase for children aged 2–17 years was not statistically significant (from 709 mg to 784 mg).

Average energy-adjusted calcium intake increased from 84.0 mg/1,000 kJ in 2012–13 to 98.7 mg/1,000 kJ in 2023.

Iodine is a nutrient essential for producing thyroid hormones which are important for normal growth and development, particularly for the brain. The major dietary sources of iodine include seafood, seaweed, dairy products, and bread made with iodised salt. Inadequate amounts of iodine may lead to a range of conditions, including goitres, hypothyroidism, and in severe cases, intellectual disability[9][17]. Mandatory iodine fortification of salt used in various bread and bread mixes was implemented in Australia in 2009[18].

Iodine is often added to food in the form of iodised salt, both while preparing or cooking at home, or at the table. This additional salt may not be accounted for during dietary recall, so iodine intake may be underestimated. More than two in ten (24.4%) people added iodised salt while cooking or preparing food, and 18.9% of people added iodised salt to food at the table.

Based on dietary recall alone, average daily iodine intake was:

• higher for males than females (195.1 µg compared to 164.1 µg)
• similar across all age groups 5 years and over, ranging between 162.7 µg and 198.2 µg
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (183.5 µg compared to 156.7 µg).

Males and females in all age groups had average intakes above the Estimated Average Requirement for iodine.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to iodine intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (21.6%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (12.1%) and Burgers (4.2%)
• Dairy milk (15.0%)
• Plain breads and bread rolls (12.5%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (6.2%)
• Flavoured milks and milkshakes (5.3%)
• Water (4.1%).

Average daily iodine intake increased from 165.4 µg in 2012–13 to 179.5 µg in 2023. However, care is advised when interpreting these results due to changes in iodine content of foods, and in data processing for iodine intake over this time. For example, the iodine content of milk in AUSNUT was higher in 2023 than in 2012–13.

In 2023, average energy-adjusted iodine intake for people aged 2 years and over was 23.1 µg/1,000 kJ. It was lower for people aged 12–17 years (18.7 µg/1,000 kJ) than any other age group.

Iron is an essential mineral needed for red blood cells to carry oxygen. Iron deficiency can lead to fatigue, anaemia and decreased immunity. Meat, fish, poultry and wholegrain cereal products contain iron[9].

In 2023, the average daily iron intake was:

• 10.8 mg for males and 8.7 mg for females
• similar across most age groups, except for people aged 12–17 years (10.8 mg) whose average intake was higher than people aged 2–4 years (8.6 mg) and 65 years and over (9.1 mg)
• similar for people living in non-remote and people living in remote areas (9.8 mg and 9.6 mg).

Males and females in all age groups had average intakes above the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for iron, except for females aged 18–29 years where their average intake was equal to the EAR.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to iron intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (19.8%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (7.6%), Pasta/noodle dishes (5.7%) and Burgers (3.4%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (17.7%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (6.4%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (5.4%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (3.9%)
• Beef, sheep, or pork-based mixed dishes (3.6%).

Overall, average daily iron intake remained steady between 2012–13 (10.3 mg) and 2023 (9.8 mg). However, iron intake for people living in remote areas decreased from 11.0 mg to 9.6 mg over this period, bringing their intake in 2023 to a similar level as that for people living in non-remote areas (9.8 mg).

In 2023, average energy-adjusted iron intake was 1.2 mg/1,000 kJ, down from 1.3 mg/1,000 kJ in 2012–13. People living in remote areas had a higher energy-adjusted iron intake than people living in non-remote areas (1.4 mg/1,000 kJ compared to 1.2 mg/1,000 kJ).

Sodium is found in different forms in our food but is generally consumed as sodium chloride (salt). Sodium is naturally present in foods such as milk, cream, eggs, meat and shellfish, and salt is also added as a preservative and to enhance flavours. Processed food, such as snack foods, bacon and other processed meats generally have high sodium levels. High sodium intakes can increase blood pressure which is a risk factor for developing heart and kidney disease[9].

Sodium is often added to food in the form of salt, both while preparing or cooking at home, or at the table. This additional salt may not be accounted for during dietary recall, so sodium intake may be underestimated.

Based on dietary recall only, average daily sodium intake in 2023 was:

• higher for males than females (2,764 mg compared to 2,213 mg)
• lower among children aged 2–4 years (1,988 mg) than for children aged 5–11 years (2,416 mg) or 12–17 years (2,801 mg)
• higher for people aged 18–29 years (2,752 mg) and 30–49 years (2,578 mg) than all older age groups
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (2,538 mg compared to 2,190 mg)
• similar to 2012–13 for people aged 2 years and over (2,382 mg in 2012–13 and 2,486 mg in 2023).

Males in age groups between 18 and 64 years and females aged 18–29 years and 30–49 years had average intakes above the Suggested Dietary Target for sodium.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to sodium intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (28.1%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls (13.4%), Burgers (5.5%) and Pizza (4.1%)
• Plain bread and bread rolls (7.9%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (6.4%)
• Processed meat (5.8%)
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys (3.9%)
• Pastries (3.8%).

In 2023, average energy-adjusted sodium intake was 301.6 mg/1,000 kJ, similar to 2012–13 (298.4 mg/1,000 kJ). People living in remote areas had an increase in energy-adjusted sodium intake over this period, from 275.1 mg/1,000 kJ to 307.3 mg/1,000 kJ.

Based on responses about additional salt use, 73.0% of people aged 2 years and over added salt while cooking or preparing food, and 60.0% added salt to food at the table. Salt was added very often by 34.1% of people while cooking or preparing food and by 21.8% of people at the table.

In 2023, average daily caffeine intake was:

• 129 mg for people aged 2 years and over
• similar for males and females (122 mg and 136 mg)
• higher for people aged 18 years and over than children aged 2–17 years (188 mg compared to 25 mg)
• lower for people aged 18–29 years (142 mg) than all older age groups, except when compared to people aged 65 years and over (189 mg) where the difference was not statistically significant
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (133 mg compared to 108 mg).

For people aged 18 years and over, average daily caffeine intake increased from 151 mg in 2012–13 to 188 mg in 2023.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to caffeine intake were:

• Coffee and coffee substitutes (59.1%), with a higher contribution for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (62.2% compared to 37.5%)
• Tea (15.4%), with a lower contribution for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (11.6% compared to 41.8%)
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (13.3%), with a similar contribution for people living in non-remote areas and people living in remote areas (13.0% and 15.3%).

More than one in ten (13.5%) people aged 15 years and over were currently on a diet to lose weight or for other health reasons in 2023. This was similar to the 11.5% reported in 2012–13. The proportion of people on a diet:

• was higher for females than males (16.4% compared to 10.5%)
• increased with age, from 9.0% of people aged 15–29 years to 18.3% of people aged 50 years and over
• was higher for people living in non-remote areas than people living in remote areas (14.5% compared to 9.9%).

Among people who were on a diet, the most common types of diets were:

• healthy eating (40.5%)
• weight loss or low calorie (28.0%)
• low sugar or sugar free (19.2%).

People aged 2 years and over reported dietary supplements they took on the day before their interview.

In Australia, dietary supplements are non-prescription medicines and are regulated as listed medicines by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)[20]. In this analysis, dietary supplements were classified into the following sub-groups within the AUSNUT 2023 food and dietary supplements classification system:

• vitamin and/or mineral supplements (such as a multivitamin, multimineral or single vitamin/mineral supplement)
• oil supplements (such as fish oil)
• herbal supplements
• other nutritive supplements (such as fibre and protein)
• other non-nutritive supplements (such as probiotics and propolis).

For more information about supplement consumption, see the methodology.

The proportion of people aged 2 years and over who took a dietary supplement on the day before their interview increased from 11.6% in 2012–13 to 17.5% in 2023.

In 2023, the proportion of people aged 2 years and over who took a dietary supplement on the day before their interview was:

• similar for males and females (14.6% and 20.5%), as the difference was not statistically significant
• higher for people aged 50 years and over than for children aged 2–17 years (31.6% compared to 11.0%)
• higher for people living in non-remote areas than for people living in remote areas (19.8% compared to 5.9%).