National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey methodology

Two types of error are possible in estimates based on a sample survey: 

• Non-sampling error    
• Sampling error

Non-sampling error is caused by factors other than those related to sample selection. It is any factor that results in the data values not accurately reflecting the true value of the population.

It can occur at any stage throughout the survey process. Examples include:

• selected people that do not respond (e.g. refusals, non-contact)
• questions being misunderstood
• responses being incorrectly recorded
• errors in coding or processing the survey data.

Sampling error is the expected difference that can occur between the published estimates and the value that would have been produced if the whole population had been surveyed. Sampling error is the result of random variation and can be estimated using measures of variance in the data.

One measure of sampling error is the standard error (SE). There are about two chances in three that an estimate will differ by less than one SE from the figure that would have been obtained if the whole population had been included. There are about 19 chances in 20 that an estimate will differ by less than two SEs.

A confidence interval expresses the sampling error as a range in which the population value is expected to lie at a given level of confidence. A confidence interval is calculated by taking the estimate plus or minus the MOE of that estimate. In other terms, the 95% confidence interval is the estimate +/- MOE.

The ABS has developed a diet classification that groups together diets and eating patterns with similar nutrient and/or food characteristics, see table below. Classifying diets and eating patterns reported in nutrition surveys is often challenging and imperfect, particularly in the case of a mutually exclusive classification as has been developed by the ABS for describing the diets and eating patterns reported. A person could report they were following up to three different types of diets or eating patterns e.g., a gluten free and a low-fat diet. 

The aim of this classification is to make national summary data more understandable and meaningful to publication audiences and data users. This classification is not definitive nor authoritative; there are many ways diets and eating patterns can be described and classified, and in some cases no classification is preferable. Diets and eating patterns are inherently complex with some nutrient and food characteristics of one diet or eating pattern shared with other diets and eating patterns. 

Data users can develop their own diet classification to best meet their individual research needs. A summary of diet and eating patterns reported by Australians in previous national surveys was recently published by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare – see Diet – Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 

Pre-school aged children

Pre-school aged children were asked about their outdoor physical activity and indoor physical activity. Respondents were asked how long they spent on each of these activities for each day in the last week.

School-aged children

School-aged children were asked about their physical activity in more detail, including the types of transport they used to get to and from school, and to and from other places. They were also asked about the other types of physical activities they participated in. Respondents were asked how long they spent on these activities for each day in the last week.

They were also asked if any of these other activities were organised (e.g. by a club, association, school or other type of organisation).

Adults

Adults were asked about how many days strength and toning activities were performed in the last week, as well as the method of transport used to get places.

Pre-school aged children

Pre-school aged children were asked which screen-based devices they had used, as well as the time spent sitting or lying down while using them. This information was collected for each day in the last week. Pre-school aged children were also asked about the longest amount of time they spent secured in a seat the day prior to the survey, such as in a highchair or a car seat.

School-aged children

School-aged children were asked about their use of screen-based devices while sitting or lying down for each day in the last week. Information was collected about the type of device, as well as the time spent using them. Use of devices for studying was excluded from these questions. 

Adults

There were no questions asked about sedentary behaviour for adults in this survey. 

Since the 2011-12 NNPAS, there were changes to the Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines relating to sleep. These changes have informed how questions have been asked. 

• Questions about the time respondents went to bed, wake-up time, and quality of sleep were asked of all respondents.
• Questions about device use and presence of devices in the bedroom were asked of all children aged 2-17.
• Additional questions about naps were asked of pre-school aged children.

School-aged children and adults were asked if they were willing to wear an accelerometer for seven days. This data aims to produce estimates of people’s physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep. Data collected through the accelerometer will be released on the ABS website and detailed microdata via DataLab will be available later in 2025.

Respondent error is a type of non-sampling error, which occurs when survey respondents misreport what they ate – either intentionally or unintentionally. Respondents may:

• choose the wrong food or dietary supplement from the list
• misjudge portion sizes
• misunderstand food descriptions
• forget to report some of the foods they ate.

These errors can affect the reliability of the data. Foster et al.[1] found that people under-report energy intake by about 25% using Intake24 online compared to total energy expenditure studies (using doubly labelled water). This was considered comparable to other surveys with interviewer-led 24-h recalls and estimated weight food diaries. For a national population study, 24-h recall methods like Intake24 offer low-cost, low-burden alternatives for collecting dietary information.

The ABS tested Intake24 with everyday people and interviewers to make sure it was easy for people in Australia to use. After this testing, some changes were made to the tool, including using clear colours and instructions, simplifying food names and including some brand names in the food list. Confusing search results were streamlined to show key words first.

Rumpler et al.[2] found estimating the amount of food, along with omitting foods, as major sources of error in dietary recalls. To help reduce these errors, Intake24 uses pictures, standard portions, and uses a step-by-step recall method (called the Multiple Pass Recall Method). Portion size errors and missing foods found during data processing were corrected - see Dietary Recall Data Processing - Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Some respondents may want to report healthier choices or smaller portions to appear healthier. To help with this bias, trained ABS interviewers guided respondents through the first recall, using both conversational techniques and Intake24 prompts. Interviewer led recalls may increase social desirability bias[3], but a second recall was done at a later stage, typically as an online form rather than with an interviewer, to validate Day 1 data and estimate usual dietary intake.

Data users should be aware of these potential limitations. For more on their impact, see Under-reporting below.

Processing error is a type of non-sampling error and can occur during data handling. Examples of this type of error include mistakes made by interviewers and coding staff. It is expected there is some error associated with food measures within the AUSNUT 2023 files prepared by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) (see AUSNUT 2023 – About the Food Measures). This can affect portion sizes, food consumption, energy and nutrient intake estimates. The ABS used standardised protocols and cross-checked data with food labels and sales data to reduce these errors. Where errors were found, they were corrected with support from Monash University and FSANZ. See Dietary Recall Data Processing - Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

A common issue in nutrition surveys is the tendency for people to underestimate their food consumption, known as under-reporting[4]. Under-reporting occurs due to mistakes made by respondents and social desirability bias (see Respondent Error above), noting that while less common, the same errors may result in over-reporting[1]. 

When analysing under-reporting, it is necessary to also consider genuine under-eating due to real world influences. Low-energy reporting could also be due to:

• normal changes in eating habits, like eating less depending on the day of week or season
• food insecurity, not having enough food or access to certain types of food
• ill health
• dieting or fasting – choosing to eat less on purpose.

To assist in the interpretation of data from the 2023 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS) and comparisons with 2011-12 NNPAS, ABS analysed the low-energy reporting prevalence in different population sub-groups. Information is provided below alongside selected characteristics with potential relationships to low-energy reporting. 

As done in 2011-12, the analysis excludes children under 10 years of age as the Goldberg cut-off is not useful for growing children[7]. Pregnant and breastfeeding women and persons with a Transgender and Gender Diverse experience are also excluded from under-reporting analysis, as information on individual circumstances that may impact on their energy requirements were not collected in the study (e.g. trimester experienced in pregnancy).

In summary, analysis of low-energy reporters in the 2023 cycle suggests that:

• it is likely under-reporting is present
• low-energy reporting is related to higher body mass and age
• there is no significant difference in low energy reporting by sex when compared across age groups, except for males and females aged 65-74 years
• low-energy reporting is related to dieting and respondents reporting they ate less than usual
• food security of the household had varying impacts on low-energy reporting
• low-energy reporting has increased since the 2011-12 NNPAS, and this increase was more prominent for males
• while low-energy reporting has increased since the previous survey, the rates are more similar for males and females when compared with differences in 2011-12.

Low-energy reporters by age group and sex

In 2023, the proportion of low-energy reporters was lowest in children aged 10-17 years (13.2%) and adults aged 75 years and over (19.3%). Other adult age groups had similar rates of low-energy reporting; for adults aged 18-29 years, 30-49 years, 50-64 years and 65-74 years it was around one in four (23.5%, 24%, 24.8%, 24.8%). 

Both males and females had similar levels of low-energy reporting in 2023 (22.8% compared to 22.3%). There was no statistically significant difference between males and females by age, except for the 65–74-year age group where males had higher rates of low energy reporters than females (28.7% compared to 21.3%).

Low-energy reporters by body mass index

Low energy reporting was associated with a higher body mass index (BMI). One in three (32.7%) people who were obese were low-energy reporters, more than double those who were underweight or normal weight (15.2%). There were similar proportions of male and female low-energy reporters across the three BMI categories.

Low-energy reporters by household food security status

Low-energy reporting did not generally differ based on the food security status of the household. However, there was a significant difference in low-energy reporting for people living in moderately food insecure households compared to food secure households (27.8% compared to 22.1%).

Low-energy reporters by diet or eating pattern

People follow diets for different reasons, including weight and nutrient management (see Dieting and Food Avoidance, 2023 for estimates from the survey). Certain diets and eating patterns, such as fasting, can be day and time dependent and are likely to impact 24-hour dietary recalls. Information on diets and eating patterns was collected for people aged 15 years and over.

Low-energy reporting was related to whether respondents were following a diet or eating pattern. One in three (28.8%) low-energy reporters were on a diet, with one in ten (11.2%) on an energy-restriction (including fasting) diet.

Low-energy reporters by day of recall

Given that a single day of intake may be impacted by day-to-day variation in eating habits, low-energy reporting was compared across both recall days. Two in five (40%) low-energy reporters on Day 1 were adequate energy reporters on their Day 2 recall (classified by EI:BMR 0.9 or higher). 

Respondents were asked whether the amount of food they reported eating was more than, less than, or about the same as what they would typically eat. This question helps provide context for interpreting the dietary recall data, especially when assessing under- or over-reporting. 

Around one third of people who said they had consumed less than usual were low energy reporters (31.3%). This is higher than the respondents who were low energy reporters who stated they had eaten about the usual amount (21.1%), or more than usual (15.4%). 

Low energy reporters, 2011-13 to 2023

To assist in the interpretation of data from the 2023 NNPAS survey in comparison to the 2011-12 NNPAS, it should be noted:

• it is likely that under-reporting is present in each cycle
• there has been an increase in the proportion of adult low-energy reporters, but not children aged 10-17 years
• the level of low-energy reporting by adult males appears to have increased to a greater extent than for females, and in 2023 is now the same between sexes
• the level of low-energy reporting by respondents classified as being normal weight and overweight increased.

Consideration should be given to other factors that may impact comparability of these surveys and their impacts on interpreting nutrient estimates, for example the relative population characteristics (e.g., age) and each survey methodology. 

Food security and diet type were not available in 2011-13 for analysis of these data by low energy reporters and so their relative impact on under-reporting in 2011-13 was not analysed.

Further detail on comparing food and nutrition collections over time can be found in the IHMHS: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Very low and high energy reporters

Another method of checking the quality of dietary recall data, is to look at extreme values, for example, what proportion of respondents had a very low or a very high estimated energy intake? This quality measure is recommended by other users of Intake24 and data have been published for other nutrition collections, for example, the National Diet and Nutrition Survey in the UK. 

The following definitions were used: 

• Very low energy intake: less than 400 kilocalories (kcal) per day, which is 1,673.6 kilojoules (kJ) per day.
• Very high energy intake: more than 4,000 kcal per day, which is 16,763 kJ per day.

The graph below shows the proportion of respondents who had extreme energy intakes using these cut-offs in the 2011-12 NNPAS and 2023 NNPAS. The levels of both extreme values have remained steady since 2011-12. In terms of data quality, these values were considered acceptable. Respondents with these extreme energy intakes as defined by these cut-offs were not excluded for data analysis in the 2011-12 NNPAS or the 2023 NNPAS.

The definitions used in this survey are not necessarily the same as those used for similar items in other collections. Additional information is contained in the Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Alcohol

The term 'alcohol' is commonly used to refer to alcoholic beverages. However, in the 2023 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS), alcohol refers to pure alcohol (or ethanol).

Alcoholic beverages

The 'Alcoholic beverages' AUSNUT major food group includes beers, wines, spirits, cider and other alcoholic beverages such as cocktails. The Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2023 captures alcohol consumption from a single 24-hour dietary recall period. Data on alcohol consumption is also available at National Health Survey (NHS): Alcohol Consumption. 

Australian Food and Nutrient Database or (AUSNUT) files 

The Australian Food and Nutrient (AUSNUT) files were developed by Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), enabling estimates of food and dietary supplements and nutrient intake to be made from the study. This release uses the 2023 version of AUSNUT. It was previously released as AUSNUT 2011-13 for use in conjunction with the 2011-13 Australian Health Survey. 

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy needed for a minimal set of functions necessary for life over a defined period. BMR is given in kilojoules (kJ) per 24-hours and is calculated using age, sex, and weight (kg) and height (cm). 

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates usually provide most energy in human diets. Data for total available carbohydrates include starch, sugars and related substances (sugar alcohols and oligosaccharides). Sugar alcohols and oligosaccharides are included in 'Total carbohydrates' but not in starch and sugar sub-totals. Therefore, total carbohydrate does not always equal the sum of sugars and starch.

Cereal based products and dishes

The 'Cereal based products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group contains biscuits, cakes, pastries, pies, dumplings, sandwiches, pizza, hamburgers, hot dogs, and pasta dishes and rice mixed dishes.

Cereals and cereal products

The 'Cereals and Cereal Products' AUSNUT major food group includes grains, flours, bread and bread rolls, plain pasta, noodles and rice, and breakfast cereals.

Commercial / Commercially prepared foods

Food that is produced by a business or commercial entity for sale to consumers. This includes packaged foods, ready-to-eat meals, restaurant and takeaway items, and any food products not made in a domestic or home setting. 

Confectionery and cereal, nut, fruit and seed bars

The 'Confectionery and cereal, nut, fruit and seed bars' AUSNUT major food group includes chocolate, fruit, nut and seed bars and muesli or cereal style bars. 

Consumer

A respondent who reports a food or beverage during their 24-hour-recall. For example, someone who reports eating a food from the “Milk products and dishes” group is considered a consumer of this group.

Note: Some food groups include ingredients (e.g. milk) used in multiple food and beverage groups. For instance, if a respondent who reports milk with their coffee would be counted as a consumer of “Non-alcoholic beverages” but may or may not be a consumer of “Milk products and dishes”. 

Day 1 / Day 2 intake

In the 2023 NNPAS, 2 dietary recall days were collected.  Day 1 intake refers to information collected from the first 24-hour dietary recall, while Day 2 refers to information from the second 24-hour recall. 

Dairy and meat substitutes

The 'Dairy and meat substitutes' AUSNUT major food group includes unflavoured milk substitutes (e.g. almond milk), flavoured milk substitutes, meat substitutes (e.g. tofu and vegetarian sausages), and dairy-free cheese, ice cream, and yoghurts.

Dietary folate equivalents

Folate is a B group vitamin that is essential for healthy growth and development, which is important during pregnancy to help prevent the incidence of neural tube defects (such as spina bifida) in babies. Folate intake is measured in folate equivalents to consider the higher bioavailability of folic acid (pteroyl glutamic acid, or PGA, the form used in food fortification and supplements) than natural folate (tetrahydrofolate, or THF, the form found in foods and in the body). Dietary folate equivalents = (1.67 × folic acid) + natural folate.

Dietary guidelines

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2013 Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG) provide information on the types and amounts of foods, food groups and dietary patterns that aim to: 

• promote health and wellbeing
• reduce the risk of diet-related conditions
• reduce the risk of chronic disease.
   

The Guidelines are for use by health professionals, policy makers, educators, food manufacturers, food retailers and researchers. 

The content of the Australian Dietary Guidelines applies to all healthy Australians, as well as those with common diet-related risk factors such as being overweight. They do not apply to people who need special dietary advice for a medical condition, or to the frail elderly.

Dietary supplement

Dietary supplements refers to products defined as Complementary Medicines under the Therapeutic Goods Regulations 1990, and includes listed medicines containing ingredients with nutrients. For example, vitamins, minerals, herbal extracts, amino acids and omega 3 fatty acids. The survey excluded listed medicines intended for inhalation or use on the skin. 

Discretionary foods

The 2013 Australian Dietary Guidelines describe discretionary foods as being, “foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the body needs, but that may add variety. However, many of these are high in saturated fats, sugars, salt and/or alcohol, and are therefore described as energy dense. They can be included sometimes in small amounts by those who are physically active, but are not a necessary part of the diet”. 

Discretionary salt

Discretionary salt is the salt added to food, either at the table or during the cooking/preparation. It does not include salt (or salt containing ingredients) added during manufacturing of processed foods or as required for chemical reasons, for example in bread baking.

Eating/drinking occasion

Respondents in the 24-hour dietary recall were asked to state what the eating occasion was for each food consumed, for example breakfast, afternoon tea, or dinner.

Egg products and dishes

The 'Egg products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes eggs and dishes where eggs are the major component e.g. omelettes, frittatas and souffles.

Energy

Energy, measured in kilojoules (kJ), is required by the body for metabolic processes, physiological functions, muscular activity, heat production and growth and development. All energy reported in the 2023 NNPAS is energy including that from dietary fibre.

Energy Intake to Basal Metabolic Rate Ratio (EI:BMR)

The ratio of energy intake to basal metabolic rate (BMR)  has been used to develop cut-off limits for identifying low energy intakes. When energy intakes equal energy expenditure, EI:BMR approximates the physical activity level.

Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)

The Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) of a particular nutrient is the level of that nutrient estimated to meet the requirements of the average healthy individual in a particular life stage and gender group. See Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand.

Fat (total)

Fat provides a significant amount of dietary energy and is also a carrier for fat-soluble vitamins and the source of essential fatty acids. It is the most energy dense of the macronutrients. The three fatty acid subtotals do not add up to total fat because total fat includes a contribution from the non-fatty acid components.

Fats and oils

The 'Fats and Oils' AUSNUT major food group includes butters, dairy blends, margarines, oils, and other fats, such as animal-based fats. 

Fatty acids

Fatty acids are units of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which combine with glycerine to form fat. Most foods contain a mixture of monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids.

Fish and seafood products and dishes

The 'Fish and seafood products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes fresh and tinned seafood, shellfish and mixed dishes with fish or seafood as the main component e.g. salmon mornay, fish curry and prawn cocktail.

Five major food groups

These are included in the Australian Dietary Guideline (ADG) classification. Defined by the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating, these five groups represent categories of foods that provide similar key nutrients essential for health. They are:

• Vegetables, and legumes and beans
• Fruit
• Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives
• Lean meats and alternatives (e.g. poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, and legumes and beans)
• Grain (cereal) foods 

Folate (total)

Total folate includes both folic acid (pteroyl glutamic acid, or PGA) and its derivatives (tetrahydrofolate, or THF, the naturally occurring forms of folate), all of which have similar functions in the body. Total folate is calculated as the sum of folic acid and folate, without any adjustment for their differing bio-availabilities.

Food classification or food groups

Food and beverages reported by respondents in the 24-hour dietary recall were collected and coded at a detailed level, but for output purposes are categorised within multiple classifications.

The AUSNUT food and dietary supplements classification has a Major (2-digit), Sub-major (3-digit), and Minor group (5-digit) level. At the broadest level (the Major group) there are 24 groups (23 for food, 1 for dietary supplements). The food groups were designed to categorise foods that share a major component or common feature. Because many foods are in fact mixtures of different ingredients, the food groups will not exclusively contain ingredients of that group.

Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG) food groups are represented by a 3-tier numerical classification which includes the Major Food Groups (2-digit), Sub-groups (3-digit) and the Servings Sub-groups (4-digit). There are 7 Major Groups which include the ADG Five Food Groups plus water, and unsaturated spreads and oils. 

These classifications were developed by Food Standards Australia New Zealand, specifically for the Nutrition and Physical Activity Study. The classifications are available in the data item list under Downloads and on the FSANZ website.

Fortification

Fortification refers to adding vitamins and minerals to food. When there is determined to be a significant public health need, food manufacturers may be required to add certain vitamins or minerals to specified foods (mandatory fortification). In Australia, mandatory fortification of foods includes iodised salt used in bread, thiamin and folic acid added to wheat flour for baking bread, and vitamin D added to edible oil spreads such as margarine. See Food Standards Australia New Zealand: Fortification.

Fruit products and dishes

The 'Fruit products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes fresh, dried and preserved fruit, as well as mixed dishes where fruit is the major component, for example apple crumble or banana split.

Haram

'Haram' was among the list of response options for respondents who said that they avoided foods due to cultural, religious or ethical reasons. In this context, haram refers to foods which may be considered forbidden in Islam such as alcohol, pork or other non-halal foods.

Intense-sweetened beverages

Intense-sweetened beverages include cordials, soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters, electrolyte, energy drinks, and fortified waters, and fruit and vegetable drinks that have been artificially sweetened.

Intense sweetener

Intense sweeteners are added to food to provide sweetness without contributing significantly to the energy level (kilojoules). These food additives are substituted for sugar in some foods and beverages to lower the kilojoule or carbohydrate level.

Infant formulae and foods

The 'Infant formulae and foods' major food group includes infant formula, human breast milk and infant cereal and food products (e.g. pouches). Infant products are typically marketed toward baby and toddler age groups (0-5 years). As the survey collects data from people aged 2 years and over, all consumers of this food group in the Australian population will not be represented.

Legume and pulse products and dishes

The 'Legume and pulse products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes legumes and pulses e.g. baked beans, chickpeas, split peas, lentils and dishes where legumes are the major component, for example dhal and falafel.

Macronutrients

Nutrients required by the body in large amounts to provide energy and support growth, metabolism, and overall health. The main macronutrients are carbohydrates, protein, fats, and dietary fibre.

Major food group (AUSNUT)

The AUSNUT Major food group is the broadest level classification in the AUSNUT 2023 food and dietary supplement classification (i.e. 2-digit level). The classification is available in the data item list under Downloads and on the FSANZ website.

Mean

The mean is the sum of the value of each observation in a dataset divided by the number of observations. This is also known as the arithmetic average. 

The mean is a useful single statistic used in this publication because it summarises consumption on a per person basis (including non-consumers, i.e. zero amounts). It is used because mean amounts of individual foods can be aggregated, that is the individual means for each food within a group will sum to the mean for the higher (parent) level food group. 

For further information see Mean and median food consumption – Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Meat, poultry and games products and dishes

The 'Meat, poultry and games products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes beef, sheep, pork, poultry, sausages, processed meat (e.g. ham, salami) and mixed dishes where meat or poultry is the major component e.g. casseroles, curried sausages and chicken stir-fry.

Median

The median is the middle value in distribution when the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order. The median divides the distribution in half (there are 50% of observations on either side of the median value). In a distribution with an odd number of observations, the median value is the middle value. 

In contrast to means for food consumption data, which tend to be skewed to the right due to small numbers of large consumers, the median is not influenced by large individual values beyond the middle of the distribution. These features make the median most useful in this publication when comparing amounts eaten of different foods or the same food eaten by different population sub-groups. However, because medians are only relevant to consumers (zero amounts are excluded), it may also be useful to know what proportion of the population consumers were to give some prevalence context for the consumption. 

For further information see Mean and median food consumption – Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study: Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Milk products and dishes

The 'Milk products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes milk, yoghurt, cream, cheese, custards, ice cream, milk shakes, smoothies and dishes where milk is the major component e.g. cheesecake, rice pudding and creme brulee.

Minerals

Inorganic elements that are essential for human health and are required in small amounts for various physiological functions. They are obtained through the diet and include both macrominerals (e.g., calcium, potassium, magnesium) and trace minerals (e.g., iodine, iron, zinc, selenium).

Minor food group (AUSNUT)

The AUSNUT minor food group is the most detailed level (5-digit level) group in the food and dietary supplements classification. The classification is available in the data item list under Downloads and on the FSANZ website.

Miscellaneous

The 'Miscellaneous' AUSNUT major food group includes yeast, and spreadable yeast extract (e.g. vegemite), intense sweeteners, herbs, spices and seasonings. 

Monounsaturated fat

Monounsaturated fat or monounsaturated fatty acids are a type of fat predominantly found in plant-based foods, although there are exceptions. These represent the sum of all the individual monounsaturated fatty acids.

Niacin equivalents 

Niacin is a B group vitamin, also called Vitamin B3. Niacin equivalents are calculated from niacin and niacin derived from tryptophan.  Niacin derived from tryptophan is a calculated value that estimates the amount of niacin that is able to be formed in the body from the amino acid tryptophan." 

Non-alcoholic beverages

The 'Non-alcoholic beverages' AUSNUT major food group includes tea, coffee, juices, fruit and vegetable drinks, cordials, soft drinks, electrolyte and energy drinks and water. It does not include beverages that are primarily dairy based (e.g. milkshakes), added to alcohol (e.g. pre-mixed soft-drink and spirit) or de-alcoholised beverages.

Non-kosher foods

'Non-kosher foods' was among the list of response options for respondents who said that they avoided foods due to cultural, religious or ethical reasons. In this context, non-kosher foods are foods that do not follow the rules of what is allowed to be eaten according to traditional Jewish religious guidelines, such as pork, shellfish, or mixing meat and dairy.

Nutrients

Substances found in food that are essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of the body. Nutrients provide energy, support bodily functions, and help build and repair tissues. They are broadly classified into macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats and dietary fibre) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). 

Percentage contribution to energy intake

This refers to the proportion of energy that a food or macronutrient contributes to each person’s total daily energy intake. 

Polyunsaturated fat

Polyunsaturated fat or polyunsaturated fatty acids are a type of fat predominantly found in plant-based foods, although there are exceptions. Linoleic acid, alpha linolenic acid, long chain omega 3 fatty acids, and other polyunsaturated fatty acids are included in the polyunsaturated fatty acid total. 

Pro vitamin A (beta-carotene equivalents)

Pro vitamin A is the form of vitamin A found predominantly in dark green and orange vegetables. Where information on levels of carotenes other than beta carotene in foods was available, this has been included in the pro vitamin A total as beta carotene equivalents, according to the equation pro vitamin A = beta carotene + (0.5 × alpha carotene) + (0.5 × cryptoxanthin). This equation considers the differing biological activities of the different forms of pro vitamin A.

Saturated fat

Saturated fat or saturated fatty acids are a type of fat predominantly found in animal-based foods, although there are exceptions. Saturated fat is the total of all saturated fatty acids, that is all fatty acids without any double bonds.

Savoury sauces and condiments

The 'Savoury sauces and condiments' AUSNUT major food group includes gravies, condiment sauces (e.g. tomato, BBQ, soy), pasta sauces, pickles, chutneys and relishes, salad dressings, stuffings and dips.

Seed and nut products and dishes

The 'Seed and nut products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes seeds and seed products (e.g. tahini), coconut, peanuts, other nuts, mixed nuts and associated products (e.g. peanut butter, coconut cream).

Snack foods

The 'Snack foods' AUSNUT major food group includes potato chips, popcorn, corn chips, cheese and bacon balls, pretzels and pappadams.

Sodium

Sodium occurs in several different forms but is generally consumed as sodium chloride (commonly known as 'salt').

Soup

The 'Soup' AUSNUT major food group includes homemade, dry and canned soups as well as soups purchased ready to eat or from restaurants.

Special dietary foods

The 'Special dietary foods' AUSNUT major food group includes formulated dietary foods. Examples include medical or special purpose drinks, protein powders, protein shakes, and meal replacement shakes and bars.

Sub-major food group (AUSNUT)

The AUSNUT sub-major food group is the second level (i.e. 3-digit level) of the food and dietary supplements classification. The classification is available in the data item list under Downloads and on the FSANZ website.

Sugar products and dishes

The 'Sugar products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes sugar, honey, syrups, jam, chocolate spreads and sauces. It also includes dishes and products, other than confectionery, where sugar is the major component e.g. jelly, pavlova and meringue.

Sugar-sweetened beverages

Sugar-sweetened beverages include cordials, soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters, electrolyte, energy drinks and fortified waters, and fruit and vegetable drinks that have added sugar (typically sucrose).

Sweetened beverages

Sweetened beverages refer to cordials, soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters, electrolyte, energy drinks and fortified waters, fruit and vegetable drinks, and other selected sweetened beverages that either contain added sugar or have been artificially sweetened.

Total long chain omega 3 fatty acids

Long chain omega 3 fatty acids are a particular type of omega 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid, docosapentanoic acid, and docosahaexanoic acid) with cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory benefits. They are found in fatty fish such as salmon, sardines, mackerel, tuna and herring. 

Under-reporting

Under-reporting refers to the tendency (bias) of respondents to underestimate their food intake in self-reported dietary surveys. It includes actual changes in foods eaten because people know they will be asked about them, and misrepresentation (deliberate, unconscious or accidental), e.g. to make their diets appear ‘healthier’ or be quicker to report.

Upper Level of intake (UL)

The Upper Level of Intake (UL) of a nutrient is the highest average daily intake level that is likely to pose no adverse health effects. Nutrient intakes above the UL have a potentially increased risk of adverse effects. See Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand. 

Usual intakes

Usual intakes represent food and nutrient intake over a long period of time. For a single person, dietary intake varies day to day. A single 24-hour dietary recall does not represent the usual, or long term, intake of a person because of this variation. In the 2023 NNPAS, respondents were asked to complete second 24-hour recall via a web-form or with an interviewer at least 8 days later. The second 24-hour recall is used to estimate and remove within-person variation to derive a usual nutrient intake distribution for the population. 

Vegetable products and dishes

The 'Vegetable products and dishes' AUSNUT major food group includes vegetables, their products (e.g. hot potato chips, tomato paste) and dishes, e.g., salads, vegetable casserole, jacket potato.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts from the diet for normal growth and metabolic processes. Examples include Preformed vitamin A (Retinol), Vitamin B3 (Niacin), Folic acid and Vitamin C. 

Vitamin A retinol equivalent

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin which helps maintain normal reproduction, vision, and immune function. Vitamin A intake is measured in retinol equivalents to reflect the contribution of pro vitamin A and preformed vitamin A, using the equation: vitamin A retinol equivalent = retinol + (beta carotene/6) + (alpha carotene/12) + (cryptoxanthin/12). The equation considers the differing biological activities of the different forms of vitamin A. 

Vitamin D3 equivalents

Vitamin D occurs in two forms. Vitamin D3, or cholecalciferol, which is produced by the action of sunlight on the skin; and Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol, which is present in a limited number of foods. Vitamin D3 equivalent refers to the total vitamin D activity of a food. Determined by the equation: Vitamin D = cholecalciferol (µg) + ergocalciferol + (5 × 25-hydroxy vitamin D). 

The major function of Vitamin D is to maintain blood calcium concentrations by enhancing the ability of the small intestine to absorb calcium and plays a role in enhancing absorption of phosphorus from the diet.