General Social Survey: Summary Results, Australia methodology

Two types of error are possible in estimates based on a sample survey: 

• non-sampling error    
• sampling error

Non-sampling error is caused by factors other than those related to sample selection.  It is any factor that results in the data values not accurately reflecting the true value of the population.

It can occur at any stage throughout the survey process. Examples include:

• selected people that do not respond (e.g. refusals, non-contact)
• questions being misunderstood 
• responses being incorrectly recorded 
• errors in coding or processing the survey data

Sampling error is the expected difference that can occur between the published estimates and the value that would have been produced if the whole population had been surveyed. Sampling error is the result of random variation and can be estimated using measures of variance in the data.

One measure of sampling error is the standard error (SE). There are about two chances in three that an estimate will differ by less than one SE from the figure that would have been obtained if  the whole population had been included. There are about 19 chances in 20 that an estimate will differ by less than two SEs.

The relative standard error (RSE) is a useful measure of sampling error. It is the SE expressed as a percentage of the estimate:

Only estimates with RSEs less than 25% are considered reliable for most purposes. Estimates with larger RSEs, between 25% and less than 50% have been included in the publication, but are flagged to indicate they are subject to high SEs. These should be used with caution. Estimates with RSEs of 50% or more have also been flagged and are considered unreliable for most purposes. RSEs for these estimates are not published.

Another measure of sampling error is the Margin of Error (MOE). This describes the distance from the population value that the sample estimate is likely to be within and is particularly useful to understand the accuracy of proportion estimates. It is specified at a given level of confidence. Confidence levels typically used are 90%, 95% and 99%.

For example, at the 95% confidence level, the MOE indicates that there are about 19 chances in 20 that the estimate will differ by less than the specified MOE from the population value (the figure obtained if the whole population had been enumerated). The 95% MOE is calculated as 1.96 multiplied by the SE:

\(\operatorname{MOE} = S E \times 1.96\)

The RSE can also be used to directly calculate a 95% MOE by:

\(\operatorname{MOE}(y) \approx \frac{R S E(y) \times y}{100} \times 1.96\)

The MOEs in this publication are calculated at the 95% confidence level. This can easily be converted to a 90% confidence level by multiplying the MOE by:

\( {1.615\over 1.96}\)

or to a 99% confidence level by multiplying the MOE by:

\( {2.576\over 1.96}\)

Depending on how the estimate is to be used, a MOE of greater than 10% may be considered too large to inform decisions. For example, a proportion of 15% with a MOE of plus or minus 11% would mean the estimate could be anything from 4% to 26%. It is important to consider this range when using the estimates to make assertions about the population.

A confidence interval expresses the sampling error as a range in which the population value is expected to lie at a given level of confidence. A confidence interval is calculated by taking the estimate plus or minus the MOE of that estimate. In other terms, the 95% confidence interval is the estimate +/- MOE. 

Proportions or percentages formed from the ratio of two estimates are also subject to sampling errors. The size of the error depends on the accuracy of both the numerator and the denominator. A formula to approximate the RSE of a proportion is given below. This formula is only valid when the numerator (x) is a subset of the denominator (y):

\(\operatorname{RSE}\left(\frac{x}{y}\right) \approx\sqrt{[R S E(x)]^{2}-[R S E(y)]^{2}}\)

When calculating measures of error, it may be useful to convert RSE or MOE to SE. This allows the use of standard formulas involving the SE. The SE can be obtained from RSE or MOE using the following formulas:

\(SE = \frac{{RSE\% \times estimate}}{{100}}\)

\(SE = \frac{{MOE}}{{1.96}}\)

The difference between two survey estimates (counts or percentages) can also be calculated from published estimates. Such an estimate is also subject to sampling error. The sampling error of the difference between two estimates depends on their SEs and the relationship (correlation) between them. An approximate SE of the difference between two estimates (x - y) may be calculated by the following formula:

While this formula will only be exact for differences between unrelated characteristics or sub-populations, it provides a reasonable approximation for the differences likely to be of interest in this publication. 

When comparing estimates between surveys or between populations within a survey, it is useful to determine whether apparent differences are 'real' differences or simply the product of differences between the survey samples. 

One way to examine this is to determine whether the difference between the estimates is statistically significant. This is done by calculating the standard error of the difference between two estimates (x and y) and using that to calculate the test statistic using the formula below:

If the value of the statistic is greater than 1.96, we can say there is good evidence of a statistically significant difference at 95% confidence levels between the two populations with respect to that characteristic. Otherwise, it cannot be stated with confidence that there is a real difference between the populations.

The person's assessment of how often they feel they are able to have a say within the general community on issues that are important to them.

A person's perception of whether they or other members of the household could obtain $2,000 for something important within a week.

Designed to gauge community acceptance of diverse cultures. The question asks the respondent the extent to which they agree or disagree with the statement that 'It is a good thing for a society to be made up of people from different cultures.' The following five options were provided. The data presented in this publication includes people who said they either 'Strongly agree' or 'Agree'.

• Strongly agree
• Agree
• Neither agree nor disagree
• Disagree
• Strongly disagree

Access that a person has to any motor vehicle to drive. Such motor vehicles include vehicle(s) which they wholly or jointly own, vehicle(s) belonging to another member of the household, and company or government vehicle(s) which they have access to for personal use.

A person who had experienced a break-in or attempted break-in at any place they had lived in the last 12 months. Break-ins to homes, garages or sheds are included. However, break-ins to motor vehicles or front or rear yards are excluded. 

The age of a person on their last birthday. 

Includes experiencing one or more of the following due to a shortage of money: 

• could not pay electricity, gas or telephone bills on time 
• could not pay mortgage or rent payments on time 
• could not pay for car registration or insurance on time 
• could not pay home and/or contents insurance on time
• could not make minimum payment on credit card 
• pawned or sold something because of a shortage of money 
• went without meals 
• went without dental treatment when needed
• were unable to heat or cool your home 
• sought financial assistance from friends or family 
• sought assistance from welfare or community organisations.

A person of any age who is a natural, adopted, step, or foster son or daughter of a couple or lone parent, usually resident in the same household, and who does not have a child or partner of his/her own usually resident in the household. 

Whether the person has been actively involved in a civic or political group in the last 12 months.

Examples of civic or political groups include: 

• trade union, professional/technical association 
• political party 
• civic group or organisation 
• environmental or animal welfare group 
• human and civil rights group 
• body corporate or tenants' association 
• consumer organisation 
• other civic or political organisation.

Whether the person has been actively involved in a community support group in the last 12 months.

Examples of community support groups include:

• service clubs 
• welfare organisations 
• education and training 
• parenting/children/youth 
• health promotion and support 
• emergency services 
• international aid and development 
• other community support groups

Debt or liabilities usually associated with the purchase of consumables, such as clothing, electrical goods or cars, incurred by way of credit or store card and which are not completely paid off, car or personal loans, interest free purchases and hire purchase agreements. 

Investment loans, lines of credit, overdue bills for telephone/electricity etc., outstanding fines or Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS)/Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) debts are excluded. 

Two people in a registered or de facto marriage, who usually live in the same household. 

Gross household income adjusted using an equivalence scale. For a lone person household it is equal to gross household income. For a household comprising more than one person, it is an indicator of the gross household income that would be needed by a lone person household to enjoy the same level of economic well-being as the household in question. 

Groupings that result from ranking all households in ascending order according to their equivalised gross household income, and then dividing into five equal groups, each comprising 20% of the total population.

All persons aged under 15 years; and people aged 15-24 years who are full-time students, have a parent in the household and do not have a partner or child of their own in the household. 

The person's assessment of their overall transport situation for all the places they needed to go, by car or other transport. Four options were provided: 

• can easily get to the places needed 
• sometimes have difficulty getting to the places needed 
• often have difficulty getting to the places needed 
• can't get to the places needed

A response option was also provided if they indicated that they never go out or are housebound. 

The data presented in this publication refers to people who reported they 'often have difficulty getting to the places needed' and 'can't get to the places needed'.

A disability exists if a limitation, restriction, impairment, disease or disorder, had lasted, or was likely to last for at least six months, and which restricted everyday activities.

It is classified by whether or not a person has a specific limitation or restriction. Specific limitation or restriction is further classified by whether the limitation or restriction is a limitation in core activities or a schooling/employment restriction only. 

There are four levels of core activity limitation (profound, severe, moderate and mild) which are based on whether a person needs help, has difficulty, or uses aids or equipment with any of the core activities (self care, mobility or communication). A person's overall level of core activity limitation is determined by their highest level of limitation in these activities. 

The four levels are: 

• profound - always needs help/supervision with core activities 
• severe - does not always need help with core activities 
• moderate - has difficulty with core activities 
• mild - uses aids to assist with core activities.

Persons are classified as having only a schooling/employment restriction if they have no core activity limitation and are aged 15 to 20 years and have difficulties with education, or are aged 15 years and over and have difficulties with employment.

Discrimination may happen when people are treated unfairly because they are seen as being different from others. People who had experienced discrimination were asked whether they thought it was because of any of the following: 

• their ethnic/cultural background or appearance 
• their gender
• their sexual orientation 
• their age 
• a disability or health issue 
• their marital or family status
• their political or religious beliefs
• their occupation

Any action where spending is greater than income, thereby reducing already accumulated savings or leading to borrowing to finance the expenditure. Examples of dissaving actions include any of the following actions because money was needed for basic living expenses:

• reducing home loan repayments 
• drawing on savings or term deposits 
• increasing balance owed on credit cards by $1,000 or more 
• entering into a loan agreement with family or friends 
• taking out a personal loan
• selling household goods or jewellery
• selling shares or other assets
   

An employment restriction is determined for persons with one or more disabilities if, because of their disability, they have any difficulties with employment such as: 

• type of job they can do 
• number of hours they can work 
• finding suitable work 
• needing time off work 
• permanently unable to work
• other related difficulties

Persons aged 15 years and over who, during the week before the interview: 

• worked one hour or more for pay, profit, commission or payment in kind in a job or business, or on a farm (includes employees, employers and own account workers) 
• worked one hour or more, without pay, in a family business or on a family farm 
• had a job, business or farm but was not at work because of holidays, sickness or other reason.

Employed persons who usually worked 35 hours or more a week (in all jobs) and those who, although usually working less than 35 hours a week, worked 35 hours or more during the reference week.

Employed persons who usually worked less than 35 hours a week (in all jobs) and either did so during the reference week, or were not at work in the reference week.

Calculated as the value of the dwelling less the amount owing on mortgages or secured loans against the dwelling. 

See Non-household members.

Face to face contact with family or friends who they do not live with in the last three months. 'At least once a week' includes people who reported seeing their family or friends 'Everyday' or 'At least once a week' over the last three months.

Two or more persons, one of whom is at least 15 years of age, who are related by blood, marriage (registered or de facto), adoption, step or fostering, and who usually live in the same household. A separate family is formed for each married couple, or for each set of parent-child relationships where only one parent is present. Some households will, therefore, contain more than one family.

Classifies households based on the number and type of families present.

Describes the field of study for a person's current qualification or the highest completed non-school qualification.

The extent to which a person is excluded from mainstream banking and financial services, for example being denied an application for a credit card.

This includes actions taken to improve a person's ability to control their current financial situation or manage in a situation involving a major loss of income. Actions covered included: following a budget; saving regularly; paying off more than the minimum required on loans or credit cards; obtaining financial advice or making voluntary contributions to superannuation.

Three measures aimed at identifying households that may have been constrained in their activities because of shortage of money. The measures are the ability to raise 'emergency money', whether had cash flow problems and whether had taken dissaving actions. One person in the household was asked to provide these assessments of the entire household's financial situation.

Includes persons engaged in full-time study, full-time employment and those undertaking a combination of full-time study & full-time employment or part-time study & part-time employment.

Cash support from the government in the form of pensions, benefits or allowances.

Income from all sources that are usually or regularly received by the household or by individual members of the household , whether monetary or in kind, before income tax, the Medicare levy and the Medicare levy surcharge are deducted.

The highest level of primary or secondary education which a person has completed, irrespective of the type of institution or location where that education was undertaken. 

One or more persons usually resident in the same private dwelling.

The provision of unpaid work/support to non-household members, excluding that provided only to family members living outside the household. 

See Unpaid work/support to non-household members for inclusions.

The reference period was the four weeks preceding the survey.
 

Classifies all people aged 15 years and over into one of the following categories:

• employed - had a job or business, or undertook work without pay in a family business in the week prior to the survey, including being absent from their ob or business
• employed full-time - persons who usually work 35 hours or more per week 
• employedpart-time - persons who usually work at least one hour, but less than 35 hours, per week 
• unemployed - not employed and actively looked for work in the four weeks prior to the survey and available to start work in the week prior to the survey 
• not in the labour force - people who were not in the categories employed or unemployed

Refers to the highest level of current study or level attained by a person.

A person's level of highest non-school qualification is the highest qualification a person has attained in any area of formal study other than school study. It is categorised according to the Australian Standard Classification of Education (ASCED), 2001 Level of education classification.

A long-term health condition is a current disease or disorder that has been diagnosed by a doctor, nurse or other health professional and has lasted, or is likely to last, for six months or more. Includes conditions controlled by medication. Data are self-reported by the respondent.

The source from which a household receives the greatest amount of income, both monetary and in-kind. If total income is nil or negative the main source is undefined. As there are several possible sources, the main source may account for less than 50% of total income. The household's main source of income may come from:

• Employee income - a person's total remuneration, whether monetary or in kind, received in return for labour from an employer or from a person's own incorporated business. It comprises wages and salaries, bonuses, amounts salary sacrificed, non-cash benefits such as the use of motor vehicles and subsidised housing, and termination payments. Employee income also includes wages and salaries received from the JobKeeper payment.
• Unincorporated business income - The profit or loss that accrues to persons as owners of, or partners in, unincorporated businesses. Profit or loss consists of the value of gross output of the business after the deduction of operating expenses and depreciation. It excludes profits from capital investments of partners who do not work in these enterprises, that is, silent partners. Losses occur when operating expenses are greater than gross receipts and are treated as negative income.
• Government pensions and allowances - Income support payments from government to persons under social security and related government programs. This includes pensions and allowances received by aged, disabled, unemployed and sick persons, families and children, veterans or their survivors, and study allowances for students. Also includes overseas pensions and benefits, although some may not be paid by overseas governments.
• Other income - income other than wages and salaries, own unincorporated business income and government pensions and allowances. This includes income received as a result of ownership of financial assets (interest, dividends), and of non-financial assets (rent, royalties) and other current receipts from sources such as superannuation, child support, workers' compensation and scholarships.

Refers to the respondent's perception of their household's financial situation over the last 12 months. Households that cannot be compared to 12 months ago include households that have formed in the last 12 months (eg. a newly married or de facto couple) or households in which the number of adults (not including grown children) has changed in the last 12 months.

Margin of Error describes the distance from the population value that the sample estimate is likely to be within, and is specified at a given level of confidence. For example, at the 95% confidence level the MoE indicates that there are about 19 chances in 20 that the estimate will differ by less than the specified MoE from the population value (the figure obtained if all dwellings had been enumerated). For further information see Accuracy.

The sum of values divided by the number of values.

The middle value of a set of values when the values are sorted in order. 

Includes people who reported they had a 'Mental health condition (including depression or anxiety)' from the list of long term health conditions. Refer to the definition of long term health conditions for further information.

A mortgage is a loan taken out using the usual residence as security. An owner with a mortgage must still owe money from such a loan.

All persons aged 15 years or over (except those aged 15-24 years who are full-time students) who have a parent in the household and do not have a partner or child of their own in the household. 

People living outside the selected person's household.

Non-school qualifications are awarded for educational attainments other than those of pre-primary, primary or secondary education. They include qualifications at the Postgraduate Degree level, Master Degree level, Graduate Diploma and Graduate Certificate level, Bachelor Degree level, Advanced Diploma and Diploma level, and Certificates I, II, III and IV levels. Non-school qualifications may be attained concurrently with school qualifications. 

Persons not in the categories employed or unemployed as defined.

An organisation or group is any body with a formal structure. It may be as large as a national charity or as small as a local book club. Purely ad hoc, informal and temporary gatherings of people do not constitute an organisation.

Non face-to-face contact with family or friends who they do not live with in the last three months. Includes contact by phone or video calls, text messaging, instant messaging, email or post. 'At least once a week' includes people who reported using these other types of contact 'Everyday' or 'At least once a week'.

Includes 'Multiple family households' and 'Group households'.

Those born overseas who arrived in Australia more than ten years ago. NZ citizens are also classified as 'Other migrants', irrespective of when they arrived in Australia

Overall life satisfaction is a summary measure of subjective wellbeing against a scale ranging from 0 to 10, where 0 means "not at all satisfied" and 10 means "completely satisfied". It measures a person's perceived level of life satisfaction in general and doesn't take into account specific illnesses or problems the person may have.

People who were employed part-time and not studying, or in part-time study and not employed.

The permission or authority granted by Australia for foreign nationals to live in Australia permanently. Permanent visa holders are referred to as 'Permanent residents'.

Any of the following events or circumstances which the person considers have been a problem for themselves or someone close to them in the last 12 months: 

• serious illness
• serious accident
• death of family member or close friend
• mental illness
• serious disability
• loss of job or unable to get a job
• discrimination
• bullying and/or harassment
• witness to violence
• abuse or violent crime
• trouble with the police
• divorce or separation
• alcohol or drug related problems
• gambling problem
• removal of children
   

A person who in the last 12 months had physical force or violence used against them or threatened in person to be used against them. Examples of physical force or violence include being pushed, grabbed, shoved, slapped, hit, kicked, punched, dragged across the ground, choked, stabbed, shot, burnt, or hit deliberately by a vehicle. Includes assault that occurred while the person was at work. Excludes incidents that occurred during the course of play on a sporting field or organised sport, and incidents of sexual assault which also involved physical assault (these are counted under sexual assault).

Houses, flats, home units, garages, tents and other structures used as private places of residence at the time of the survey.

A self assessment by persons who speak a language other than English at home, of whether they speak English very well, well, not well or not at all. 

Those who were born overseas and arrived in Australia in the last ten years and have stayed or are planning to stay more than 12 months. They may be Australian citizens or citizens of another country. Excludes New Zealand citizens (they are classified as 'Other migrants').

A payment made periodically by a tenant to an owner or landlord in return for lodgement. 

A schooling restriction is determined for persons aged 15 to 20 years who have one or more disabilities and, because of their disability, have any difficulties with education such as:

• not attending school / further study due to condition 
• need time off school / study 
• attend special classes / school 
• other difficulties at school

In the GSS only one person aged 15 years or over in each dwelling was selected for the survey. This person was randomly chosen after all usual residents of the household were listed. 

The selected person's general assessment of their own health, against a five point scale from excellent through to poor. 

• Banks or financial institutions
• Centrelink / Family Assistance Office
• Hospitals
• Medicare
• Telecommunication services 
• Motor Vehicle Registry
• Housing / utility services
• Health related services
• Other services

Refers to whether a person described themselves as being straight (heterosexual); gay or lesbian; bisexual; or other sexual orientation. For the purpose of this publication, data for people who described themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual or another sexual orientation is combined into 'gay, lesbian or bisexual'.

The person's assessment of how strongly they agree or disagree with the following statement: "When I need someone to help me out, I can usually find someone".

Whether the person has been actively involved in a social group in the last 12 months.

Examples of social groups include: 

• sport or physical recreation group 
• arts or heritage group 
• religious or spiritual group or organisation 
• craft or practical hobby group 
• adult education, other recreation or special interest group
• ethnic / multicultural club 
• social clubs providing restaurants or bars 
• other social groups

SEIFA is a product developed especially for those interested in the assessment of the welfare of Australian communities. The ABS has developed four indexes to allow ranking of regions/areas, providing a method of determining the level of social and economic well-being in each region.

Each of the indexes summarise different aspects of the socio-economic status of the people living in those areas. The index refers to the attributes of the area (Statistical Area Level 1) in which a person lives, not to the socio-economic situation of a particular individual. The index used in this publication was compiled following the 2016 Census. For further information about the SEIFAs, see Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA) 2016.

The four indexes are: 

• Index of relative socio-economic advantage and disadvantage: includes attributes such as households with low incomes and people with a tertiary education. 
• Index of relative socio-economic disadvantage: includes attributes such as low income, low educational attainment, high unemployment and dwellings without motor vehicles. 
• Index of economic resources: includes attributes such as income, housing expenditure and assets of households. 
• Index of education and occupation: includes attributes relating to the educational and occupational characteristics of communities, like the proportion of people with a higher qualification or those employed in a skilled occupation.

Differences between population estimates are said to be statistically significant when it can be stated with 95% confidence that there is a real difference between the populations. For further information see Accuracy.

Refers to whether there is someone outside the person's household who could be asked for support in a time of crisis. Support could be in the form of emotional, physical or financial help. Potential sources of support could be family members, friends, neighbours, work colleagues and various community, government and professional organisations.

A person who was born overseas, who arrived in Australia in the last ten years, is not an Australian or New Zealand citizen, and has a temporary visa.

The nature of a household's legal right to occupy the dwelling in which they usually reside. In this publication, households are grouped into one of four broad tenure categories: 

• owner without a mortgage - the dwelling is owned by a resident of the household and there are no outstanding mortgages or loans secured against the dwelling 
• owner with a mortgage - a household where an outstanding mortgage or loan amount secured against the dwelling, for the purposes of housing, is greater than zero 
• renter - a household who pays rent to reside in the dwelling.
• other tenure - includes households which are participants of a life tenure scheme, participants in a rent/buy (or shared equity) scheme, living rent-free or are in a tenure arrangement not included elsewhere (e.g. house-sitting, payment in kind for a specific service). 

To ascertain peoples feelings of trust in others, and in some major institutions, they were asked how strongly they agreed or disagreed with the following statements: 

• most people can be trusted? 
• the healthcare system can be trusted? 
• police can be trusted? 
• the justice system can be trusted? 

The response categories were in a five point scale: 

• Strongly agree
• Somewhat agree
• Neither agree nor disagree
• Somewhat disagree
• Strongly disagree

The phrase 'most people' is based on the respondent's interpretation - there is no specific definition. The idea is whether people can go about their affairs confidently, expecting that others will generally deal fairly with them and act in the ways normally expected in our society. 

Persons aged 15 years and over who were not employed during the week before the interview and: 

• had actively looked for full-time or part-time work at any time in the four weeks up to the end of the reference week and were available for work in the reference week; or 
• were waiting to start a new job within four weeks from the end of the reference week and could have started in the reference week if the job had been available then.

The provision of unpaid help willingly given in the form of time, service or skills, to an organisation, club, or association. The GSS excludes unpaid voluntary work through an organisation if undertaken overseas. 

The following forms of unpaid work are not strictly "willingly given" and have been excluded: 

• taking part in Community Work under Mutual Obligation 
• work experience or an unpaid work trial 
• a community service order 
• a student placement.

The reference period was the 12 months preceding the survey.

Prior to GSS 2019, this item was labelled "Voluntary work" as it was the only kind of voluntary work included in the GSS. This new label was adopted for the 2019 and 2020 release to accommodate the addition of Informal volunteering within the broader category of Voluntary work. The majority of GSS voluntary work data is still only collected for Unpaid voluntary work through an organisation.

The provision of unpaid work, support, or help to people or the community directly, not through an organisation, club, or association. This includes:

• domestic work, home maintenance or gardening 
• providing transport or running errands 
• any unpaid child care 
• any teaching, coaching or practical advice 
• providing any emotional support 
• personal care/assistance
• lobbying/advocacy
• community assistance
• environmental protection
• any other help.

This item concerns unpaid work/support provided to people living outside the selected person's household. The GSS does not collect any data about unpaid domestic work or any other unpaid work undertaken for the sole benefit of the person's own household (including related and unrelated household members).

The reference period was the four weeks preceding the survey.

The provision of unpaid help willingly given in the form of time, service or skills. Voluntary work must benefit the volunteer's community beyond their own family and household.

Voluntary work includes both Unpaid voluntary work through an organisation and Informal volunteering. The key difference between the two is whether the unpaid work is undertaken through an organisation. See related definitions.

See Methodology for a caveat on using and interpreting GSS Voluntary work data.

See Voluntary work.

Refers to whether a person has access to working conditions allowing for family or community responsibilities such as carer's leave, flexible working hours or working from home arrangements.