Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem Accounts, experimental estimates

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Estimates of the extent, condition and services provided by ecosystems in the Great Barrier Reef’s Terrestrial, Coastal and Marine realms

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Reference period
2022-23 financial year
Released
26/05/2026
Next release Unknown
First release
Release date and time
26/05/2026 11:30am AEST

Key statistics

  • In 2021–22, Photic coral reefs accounted for 4.70 million hectares (or 13.3%) of the Great Barrier Reef’s marine area while Seagrass meadows covered 521,863 hectares (1.5%).
  • Between 2021–22 and 2022–23, the marine water quality index fell (0.43 to 0.33), coral condition index recorded a slight decrease (0.39 to 0.38) and seagrass condition index declined from 0.44 to 0.42.
  • In 2021–22, blue carbon ecosystems (Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass meadows) stored 196 million tonnes or $337 million worth of carbon, with 2.56 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent sequestered over the year.
  • In 2023, over 85% of residents surveyed agreed that visiting the Great Barrier Reef had a physical benefit (86.2%) and helped them unwind and de-stress (88.8%).

These accounts replace the previously released 2017 Experimental Environmental-Economic Accounts for the Great Barrier Reef and reflect progress made in the National Ecosystem Accounts. These statistics have been compiled according to the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) – Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) framework and incorporate different data sources and methods that are not directly comparable.

The statistics in this publication are experimental in nature, therefore all figures should be treated as estimates. They show what is possible with existing data sources and methods. The ABS has consulted widely to identify the best suite of metrics and data sources available. Further research and engagement will continue to refine any future releases, as such, estimates and methods are likely to change in any future releases.

Great Barrier Reef overview

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) has been inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List since 1981 due to its 'outstanding universal value'. The Great Barrier Reef region extends across 42.74 million hectares of land, from Cape York in the north to Bundaberg in the south, where catchments flow into 35.23 million hectares in the marine environment within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA).

As a global biodiversity hotspot, it is regarded as one of the most complex natural ecosystems on Earth and offers considerable benefits to the economy and society. As of 2022–23, over 1.2 million people lived in the Great Barrier Reef catchment area.

The estimates in this publication represent Australia’s first Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem Accounts (GBR Ecosystem Accounts) that are System of Environmental Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) aligned. These accounts include estimates for the extent and condition of the Great Barrier Reef’s ecosystems, as well as measures of selected ecosystem services and the values these services contribute to economic activity and human wellbeing. Supplementary socio-economic, tourism and social statistics are included to provide further context to the accounts.

Ecosystems, water availability and climate are intrinsically linked through closely connected natural processes. Large-scale climate dynamics, such as Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), shape regional rainfall and temperature patterns which in turn influence sea surface temperatures, river flows, soil moisture and vegetation condition across adjacent catchments. Rainfall is particularly important, as it controls river discharge into the GBR lagoon, delivering fresh water as well as sediments, nutrients and pollutants. These can degrade water quality, promote algal growth and stress seagrass meadows and coral communities. Vegetation in these catchments play a moderating role by improving water infiltration, reducing erosion and stabilising runoff. However, during droughts, heatwaves, or altered rainfall regimes, reduced vegetation cover can increase erosion and pollutant loads entering the reef. In the marine environment, rising sea temperatures intensify coral bleaching. Tropical cyclone and storm activity can contribute to both natural disturbance and physical damage to reef structures, as well as resuspension of sediments that reduce light availability. These relationships form a dynamic system in which changes flow through land and sea environments. Ultimately these events shape the condition, resilience and health of ecosystems, and, in turn, the services they provide.

The data is not always available at the same time intervals across account outputs due to limitations in data availability, however trends are shown where possible. The publication focuses on the most recent reference years available, please refer to the methodology for more information.

The map below shows the GBR regions: Cape York, Wet Tropics, Burdekin, Mackay Whistunday, Fitzroy and Burnett Mary. All extent and condition data are presented by these regions.

Great Barrier Reef regions

Map of GBR regions

This map of Queensland displays the boundaries of the Great Barrier Reef regions used for reporting in the Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem Accounts, Experimental Estimates 2022-23. These boundaries are derived from the Great Barrier Reef catchments and river basins of six Natural Resource Management (NRM) regions that flow into the GBR lagoon, extended to the outer boundary of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA 2020). The resulting regions are filled with colour:

  • Cape York (very light blue)
  • Wet Tropics (light blue)
  • Burdekin (medium blue)
  • Mackay Whitsunday (medium blue green)
  • Fitzroy (dark blue green)
  • Burnett Mary (very dark blue green)

Note that the Cape York NRM region was divided and only the catchment basins draining eastwards (Jacky Jacky, Olive-Pascoe, Lockhart, Stewart, Normanby, Jeannie, Endeavour) were considered formally in scope. 

The map also shows the boundary of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) in dark blue. These boundaries are produced by the Department of the Environment, Tourism, Science and Innovation (Queensland Government). Important town centres are also shown to give context to the regions.

Accessibility statement: We are committed to providing information and services to the widest possible audience. We’ve designed this image to comply with the Australian Government Digital Service Standard and aim to meet the latest WCAG Guidelines which describe how to make web content more usable and accessible for everyone. For further information or assistance or to advise of accessibility issues with this product, please email client.services@abs.gov.au.

Not all source data were available by GBR regions and therefore some data are presented in a range of alternative statistical geographies. Alternative geographies have been outlined in the methodology.

Extent

The ecosystems in the GBR Ecosystem Accounts are classified hierarchically based on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Global Ecosystem Typology (IUCN GET). Realms are the highest classification. Realms are divided into biomes, which are further divided into ecosystem functional groups (EFGs). Where commentary relates to specific IUCN GET ecosystems, the text will refer to them as ‘EFGs’.

The main realms are Terrestrial, Freshwater and Marine, with Transitional realms being those that cross between Terrestrial, Marine and Freshwater realms, for example the Coastal realm. 

In 2020−21, across the Great Barrier Reef region:

  • the Terrestrial realm covered 40.08 million hectares or 51.2% of the GBR’s extent (a)
  • waterbodies totalled 247,202 hectares or 0.6% of the GBR’s terrestrial landmass (b) (c)
  • the Marine realm covered 34.23 million hectares or 43.7% of the GBR extent (a).

(a) The Great Barrier Reef’s extent is defined by the area within the 6 Natural Resource Management (NRM) regions that flow into the GBR lagoon, extended to the outer boundary of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, please refer to the methodology for more information. 

(b) Waterbodies include the Lakes biome, the Artificial wetlands biome and the Permanent marshes EFG.

(c) Ecosystems on the terrestrial landmass includes those from the Terrestrial, Marine-Terrestrial, Terrestrial-Freshwater, Freshwater and Freshwater-Marine realms.

Condition

In the Great Barrier Reef:

  • Between 2021–22 and 2022–23, the vegetation productivity of vegetated ecosystems rose.
  • Between 2020–21 and 2021–22, the proportion of all Mangroves that were closed forest (>80% canopy cover) increased from 50.3% to 54.9%.
  • Between 2021–22 and 2022–23, the marine water quality index fell (0.43 to 0.33), while coral condition index recorded a slight decrease (0.39 to 0.38) and seagrass condition declined from 0.44 to 0.42.
  • Annual average sea surface temperatures were 26.44 degrees Celsius in 2022–23, 0.57 degrees Celsius higher than the long-term annual average.

Ecosystem services

A selection of ecosystem services has been estimated for this publication. This does not represent an exhaustive list of the services provided by the ecosystems in the Great Barrier Reef. 

In 2021–22, the environment:

  • stored 196 million tonnes or $337 million worth of carbon across blue carbon ecosystems (Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass meadows), with a total of 2.56 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent sequestered over the year
  • provided storm and tidal surge protection to 21,062 dwellings and 45,163 people from a potential 1-in-100-year inundation event
  • provided 6,130 tonnes or $5.42 million worth of wild fish from fisheries in the GBR Marine realm.

In 2022–23, the environment:

  • contributed to the production of 6.55 million tonnes or $82.4 million worth of sugarcane across 306,153 hectares in the Great Barrier Reef region
  • drew 2.2 million commercial visits to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, valued at $10.3 million.

Supplementary data

  • In 2021–22, the Tourism industry in the Great Barrier Reef supported 40,091 jobs directly, while the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing industry supported 37,346 jobs (a).
  • In 2023, over 85% of residents surveyed agreed that visiting the GBR had a physical benefit (86.2%) and helped them unwind and de-stress (88.8%).

(a) Number of employee jobs are aggregated from GBR-related Tourism regions (Tropical North Queensland, Townsville, Whitsunday, Mackay Isaac, Capricorn, Gladstone, Bundaberg and Fraser Coast).

Terrestrial realm

The Terrestrial realm represents all dry land ecosystems and includes natural, semi-natural and anthropogenic ecosystems. Transitional ecosystems, which refer to ecosystems that cross between Terrestrial, Marine and Freshwater ecosystems such as estuaries and wetlands, are also reported under this section.

Terrestrial extent

In 2020–21, Savannas and grasslands together with the Intensive land-use biome covered 81.2% of total terrestrial landmass in the Great Barrier Reef region. Ecosystems on the terrestrial landmass includes those from the Terrestrial, Marine-Terrestrial, Terrestrial-Freshwater, Freshwater and Freshwater-Marine realms.

  • Savannas and grasslands covered 21.8 million hectares (51.0%).
  • The Intensive land-use biome, which includes all intensively-managed ecosystems like agricultural lands and urban areas, extended across 12.9 million hectares (30.2%).
  • The Tropical-subtropical forests biome covered 2.5 million hectares (5.8%).

Pyric tussock savannas were the most widespread ecosystem (18.7 million ha, 43.7%), followed by Sown pastures and fields (10.8 million ha, 25.2%), together dominating most GBR regions. Other ecosystem types were unevenly distributed, with some ecosystems concentrated in a single GBR region. In 2020–21:

  • Cape York contained 97.5% of all Seasonal floodplain marshes (828,992 hectares)
  • Wet Tropics contained 66.7% of all Tropical/Subtropical lowland rainforests (652,198 hectares), mostly within the Daintree Rainforest, Australia’s largest rainforest
  • Burdekin contained 99.4% of all Hummock savannas (1.4 million hectares)
  • Mackay Whitsunday, the smallest GBR region (930,943 hectares), had a mix of ecosystems
  • Fitzroy, the largest GBR region covering 15.7 million hectares, contained 59.8% of all Sown pastures and fields (6.4 million hectares), and 43.4% of all Annual croplands (551,884 hectares)
  • Burnett Mary contained 86.1% of all Temperate woodlands (1.2 million hectares) and 57.9% of all Temperate pyric sclerophyll forests and woodlands (668,205 hectares).

Between 2010–11 and 2020–21, most change occurred between the Intensive land-use biome and the Savannas and grasslands biome.

  • The Intensive land-use biome increased by 5.9% (718,488 hectares), driven by Fitzroy (up 456,134 hectares, up 6.7%). Cape York had the greatest per cent increase (up 18.8%, up 3,653 hectares). Within this biome, Sown pastures and fields EFG increased by 546,647 hectares (up 5.4%).
  • Savannas and grasslands biome decreased by 2.0% (down 449,711 hectares), driven by falls in Fitzroy (down 284,746 hectares, down 4.3%). Within this biome, Pyric tussock savannas EFG decreased by 380,591 hectares (down 2.0%).

Terrestrial condition

Five terrestrial condition measures are included in the accounts:

  • Bare Soil Index (BSI), or bare ground cover, estimates the proportion of exposed soil, it can be used to identify land clearing or degradation, soil disturbance or erosion. 
  • Kernel Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (kNDVI) or vegetation productivity is used as a proxy for canopy cover by measuring photosynthetic activity. It can be used to track vegetation growth, stress or decline to provide an indication of vegetation condition.
  • Normalised Burn Ratio (NBR) or burnt area ratio highlights recently burned areas. It can be used to support fire management and monitor post-fire recovery.
  • Normalised Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) or canopy moisture represents moisture content in vegetation. It can be used to detect water stress and fire-prone areas as well as monitor droughts.
  • Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI) or surface water availability represents water availability (presence of water bodies). It can be used to track changes in waterbodies over time as well as monitor flood and drought events.

Vegetation productivity is discussed below, focusing on 5 ecosystems that are characteristic of the Great Barrier Reef region.

Vegetation productivity

Forest ecosystems had the highest kNDVI, with rainforests showing the greatest vegetation productivity, while grazing lands (Sown pastures and fields) had the lowest kNDVI.

  • In 2022–23, Tropical/Subtropical lowland rainforests had the highest vegetation productivity after Tropical/Subtropical montane rainforests. Tropical/Subtropical lowland rainforests experienced increased vegetation productivity from 2010–11 through to 2016–17 and has since remained relatively stable.
  • Vegetation productivity of Sown pastures and fields, Pyric tussock savannas and Tropical/Subtropical dry forests and thickets have fluctuated over time, coinciding with the 2010–2012 and 2020–2023 La Niña and 2015–2016 El Niño events.

Terrestrial ecosystem services

Crop provisioning 

Crop provisioning services are the ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated plants that are harvested by economic units (e.g. farmers) for various uses including food and fibre production, fodder and energy. In this publication, sugarcane production has been selected as an illustrative example of this ecosystem service due to its importance to the Great Barrier Reef region. These estimates are reported by Statistical Area Level 4 (SA4). Please refer to the methodology for more information. 

In 2022–23, the ecosystem contribution to the production of sugarcane was 6.55 million tonnes across 306,153 hectares in the Great Barrier Reef, with an ecosystem service value of $82.4 million. This service was distributed across the following SA4s:

  • Townsville: 2.61 million tonnes (39.8%) across 114,543 hectares, with an ecosystem service value of $44.0 million (53.3%). 
  • Mackay–Isaac–Whitsunday: 1.73 million tonnes (26.4%) across 93,745 hectares, with an ecosystem service value of $16.8 million (20.4%).
  • Cairns: 1.59 million tonnes (24.3%) produced across 71,340 hectares, with an ecosystem service value of $13.2 million (16.0%).
  • Wide Bay: 627,073 tonnes (9.6%), with an ecosystem service value of $8.4 million (10.2%). 

Ecosystem contributions to crop production and their monetary value are closely aligned. Regions with relatively high ecosystem contributions benefit from more fertile land and favourable climatic conditions, which is in part reflected in higher land values. The larger share of ecosystem service value observed in Townsville is driven by its favourable conditions for growing sugarcane, including extensive water infrastructure and favourable climatic conditions.

Coastal realm

Coastal extent

Mangroves and Saltmarsh are coastal wetlands that are regularly inundated with tidal sea water. The long, complex coastline and the tropical climate of the Great Barrier Reef provide an ideal habitat for these ecosystems.

In 2021–22, Mangroves covered 285,181 hectares of coastal areas in the Great Barrier Reef.

  • Fitzroy (25.2%) and Cape York (22.6%) regions contained the most Mangroves.
  • The remaining Mangroves were distributed across the Wet Tropics (17.8%), Burnett Mary (11.8%), Mackay Whitsunday (11.8%) and Burdekin (10.8%) regions.

In 2021–22, Saltmarsh covered 51,240 hectares of coastal areas in the Great Barrier Reef.

  • Most Saltmarsh were located in the Fitzroy (44.1%), Burdekin (21.4%) and Cape York regions (19.9%).
  • The remaining Saltmarsh were distributed across the Burnett Mary (7.6%), Mackay Whitsunday (5.1%) and Wet Tropics (2.0%) regions.

Coastal condition

Mangrove canopy cover

Mangrove canopy cover reflects canopy density and indicates the overall health and productivity of mangrove forests. Monitoring changes to mangrove canopy cover can help describe how mangrove forests are responding to environmental changes. Reduction in canopy cover is typical when mangroves experience ecosystem disturbances, such as storms and cyclones. The classifications of canopy cover are:

  • Woodland: 20–50% canopy cover
  • Open forest: 50–80% canopy cover
  • Closed forest: 80–100% canopy cover
  • Unclassified: Data on canopy cover not available.

In 2021–22, over half of the Great Barrier Reef Mangroves consisted of closed forest, the most dense canopy cover.

  • Wet Tropics (74.1%) and Mackay Whitsunday (60.5%) had the greatest proportion of closed forest.
  • Closed forest increased between 2010–11 and 2021–22, from 43.4% to 54.9%.

Correspondingly, both open forest and woodland Mangroves decreased in this time down to 20.9% and 2.2% respectively.

  • The proportion of closed forest decreased in 2010–11, 2014–15 and 2018–19, coinciding with severe tropical cyclones Yasi (2011), Marcia (2015) and Trevor (2019). At the same time, increases in open forest and woodlands indicate a reduction in canopy cover density due to cyclone damage.

Coastal ecosystem services

Coastal ecosystems provide many ecosystem services. This account estimates coastal protection and global climate regulation for selected coastal ecosystems. 

Coastal protection

Mangrove and Saltmarsh ecosystems reduce damage to dwellings during a storm or tidal surge by attenuating and dissipating wave and wind energy. In 2021–22:

  • Mangroves and Saltmarsh provided coastal protection to a total of 21,062 dwellings and 45,163 people from an approximately 1-in-100-year inundation event
  • Mangroves protected 19,333 dwellings and 41,461 people from a 1-in-100-year inundation event
  • Saltmarsh provided protection to 5,904 dwellings and 12,308 people from a 1-in-100-year inundation event.

Mangroves and Saltmarsh can provide protection to the same dwellings or people, so the total combined protection will be less than the sum of the two.

*Number of dwellings and people protected by Saltmarsh in Cape York and Wet Tropics was not available for publication.

The GBR regions with the highest number of dwellings protected by Mangroves and Saltmarsh in 2021–22 were:

  • Mackay Whitsunday, with 9,229 dwellings protected
  • Burnett Mary with 4,923 dwellings protected.

Although Cape York was the second largest contributor to extent of Mangrove and Saltmarsh in the Great Barrier Reef, its low population density results in relatively few dwellings protected (97) compared to other more densely populated regions.

Global climate regulation

Global climate regulation services are the ecosystem contributions to reducing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere through the removal (sequestration) of carbon from the atmosphere and the retention (storage) of carbon in ecosystems.

Carbon sequestration

Net carbon sequestration reflects the ability of ecosystems to take up atmospheric carbon and is equal to gross sequestration minus ecosystem emissions. It is reported as tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) to account for other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide.

Blue carbon ecosystems (Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass meadows) sequestered a total of 2.56 million tCO2e across the GBR regions in 2021−22.

  • Mangroves sequestered over 80% of all carbon in the GBR (2.1 million tCO2e), mostly in Cape York (26.2%), Wet Tropics (20.7%) and Fitzroy (19.1%).
  • Seagrass meadows sequestered 0.4 million tCO2e (15.7%), half of which was in Cape York (48.9%) and 18.7% in Burnett Mary.
  • Saltmarsh sequestered 56,635 tCO2e (2.2%), driven by the Fitzroy (35.1%) and Cape York (30.9%) regions.
  • Cape York sequestered the most (29.9%), followed by Fitzroy (17.9%) and Wet Tropics (17.7%).

Net carbon sequestration by Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass (tCO2e), by GBR region, 2021-22

This map of Queensland displays the net carbon sequestration in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) for blue carbon ecosystems during 2021−22. Blue carbon ecosystems include Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass meadows. The data is displayed for each Great Barrier Reef region, shaded based on total net sequestration. A darker colour represents a higher amount of carbon sequestered and a lighter colour represents a lower amount. The four ranges are:

  • 500,000 or more (very dark green)
  • 400,000 to less than 500,000 (dark green)
  • 300,000 to less than 400,000 (medium green)
  • Less than 300,000 (light green)

The map shows Cape York with the highest net carbon sequestration, followed by Fitzroy and the Wet Tropics. Burnett Mary had the lowest net carbon sequestration during 2021−22.

Accessibility statement: We are committed to providing information and services to the widest possible audience. We’ve designed this website to comply with the Australian Government Digital Service Standard and aim to meet the latest WCAG Guidelines which describe how to make web content more usable and accessible for everyone. However, some functions of this interactive map may be inaccessible, or difficult to use with assistive technology. All data underlying this map can be downloaded in table format from the Data downloads section of this publication. For further information or assistance, or to advise of accessibility issues with this product, please email client.services@abs.gov.au.

Source

ABS GBR 2025 Net Carbon Sequestration 2021–22 - Overview

Carbon retention

Carbon retention reflects the ability of ecosystems to accumulate and retain the stock of carbon and includes above ground biomass, below ground biomass and soil carbon to 1 m depth. It is reported as tonnes of carbon retained. The ecosystem service value of carbon retention reflects both the stock of carbon and fluctuations in carbon price.

Mangroves, Saltmarsh and Seagrass meadows retained 196 million tonnes of carbon (MtC) across the GBR regions in 2021−22, with an estimated ecosystem service value of $337 million. In 2021–22:

  • Mangroves retained 160.7 MtC (82.0%), valued at $276.8 million 
  • Seagrass meadows retained 28.0 MtC (14.3%), with a value of $48.2 million
  • Saltmarsh retained 7.2 MtC (3.7%), with a value of $12.4 million
  • Cape York retained the most carbon (53.5 MtC, 27.3%), followed by Fitzroy (43.7 MtC, 22.3%) and Wet Tropics (32.5 MtC, 16.6%).

Marine realm

The Marine realm includes all ocean waters, including benthic and open water ecosystems.

Marine extent

Extent estimates of Photic coral reefs in this publication may exceed those from other sources due to differences in methodology and classification. The ABS uses data from a predictive model that includes both shallow and mesophotic reefs and assumes all reefs north of −32.69° latitude (approximately the latitude of Hawks Nest, New South Wales) are coral. Please refer to the methodology for details.

The benthic marine environment of the GBR covers a total of 35.2 million hectares across the Marine shelf and Deep sea floors biomes.

  • The Marine shelf biome occupied 67.1% of the GBR’s benthic environment and the Deep sea floors biome occupied 30.1%, with the remaining 2.8% of area Unclassified. 
  • The Marine shelf biome was dominated by Subtidal sand beds covering 18.1 million hectares.
  • Photic coral reefs covered 4.7 million hectares with the regions of Fitzroy and Cape York containing the greatest extent.
  • Seagrass meadows covered 0.5 million hectares with Cape York and Burnett Mary containing the greatest extent.
  • The Deep sea floors biome was dominated by Continental and island slopes covering 10.5 million hectares.

The Pelagic ocean waters biome represents the water column above the benthic ecosystems, with separate layers showing the three-dimensional aspect of the marine environment. In 2022–23:

  • Epipelagic ocean waters (0 m to 200 m depth) covered 35 million hectares
  • Mesopelagic ocean waters (200 m to 1000 m depth) covered 10.9 million hectares
  • Bathypelagic ocean waters (1000 m to 3000 m depth) covered 6.0 million hectares
  • Abyssopelagic ocean waters (3000 m to 6000 m depth) covered 0.5 million hectares
  • Cape York and Burnett Mary were the only GBR regions that contained Abyssopelagic ocean waters.

Marine condition

Four marine condition measures are included in the accounts: sea surface temperature, marine water quality index, seagrass condition index, and coral condition index. Collectively, these indicators provide an indicative view of ecosystem condition in the marine environment.

Sea surface temperature

Sea surface temperature (SST) represents the temperature of the Epipelagic ocean waters EFG, which is the top layer of the ocean’s water column. Changes in SST can affect marine ecosystems, such as causing coral bleaching or altering species distribution and physiology. SST anomaly is the difference between the monthly or annual average sea surface temperature and the long-term average.

Across the Great Barrier Reef, SST has shown an overall warming trend from 2013–14 onwards, with all annual average anomalies above the long-term average. When averaged across the Great Barrier Reef marine environment:

  • only 2012–13 had an annual average anomaly below the long-term average at -0.03°C
  • the warmest year was 2021–22 with an annual average anomaly of 0.71°C above the long-term average
  • February 2020 recorded the highest average SST at 29.40°C, with an anomaly of 0.94°C
  • April 2023 recorded the highest anomaly of 1.32°C.

While patterns in SST anomaly varied by region, an overall warming trend across the Great Barrier Reef was observed. 

  • Cape York experienced the strongest warming with an annual average anomaly of 0.93°C, in 2021–22.
  • Cape York also had the highest monthly average anomaly over the time series of 1.96°C in October 2022.

Annual average SST anomaly (degrees Celsius) by GBR region, 2012–13 to 2022–23

Map of SST anomalies in the GBR

This series of maps of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) show annual average sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies for financial years 2012–13 to 2022–23. The maps display data by marine GBR regions, which are derived from Natural Resource Management (NRM) regions extending out to GBR World Heritage Area boundaries.

Each map shows SST anomalies for each GBR region representing how annual average SST differs from the long-term average for that region. Anomalies were calculated relative to the long-term average using the 1992 to 2016 SSTAARS climatology. The following diverging colour range is used:

  • Cooler than average: -0.1 to -1.0 degrees Celsius (light blue to dark blue)
  • No anomaly: 0.0 (very light green)
  • Warmer than average: 0.1 to 1.0 (light yellow to dark red)

SST anomalies changed over time, with an overall increase in warming evident across the financial years. The strongest warming (shaded in dark red) occurred in 2021–22 with significant warming across all GBR regions, the further north the region the stronger the warming, with Cape York recording the highest increase above the long-term average. 2012–13 was the coolest year with most regions showing SST anomalies close to or slightly below the long-term average, except for Cape York which was slightly warmer than average.

Accessibility statement: We are committed to providing information and services to the widest possible audience. We’ve designed this image to comply with the Australian Government Digital Service Standard and aim to meet the latest WCAG Guidelines which describe how to make web content more usable and accessible for everyone. All data underlying these maps can be downloaded in table format from the Data downloads section of this publication. For further information or assistance or to advise of accessibility issues with this product, please email client.services@abs.gov.au.

Marine water quality

Marine water quality is strongly influenced by flooding events when large nutrient and sediment loads are flushed into the GBR lagoon. A higher water quality index value reflects improved water quality whereas a low water quality index value indicates poorer water quality. 

  • Water quality scores in all regions fell when Cyclone Debbie made landfall near Airlie Beach (Mackay Whitsunday region) in March 2017, causing major flooding in southern catchments. 
  • Rainfall associated with Cyclone Owen and Cyclone Trevor caused widespread flooding in northern catchments in 2018–19.
  • Water quality index peaked during periods of low flow from river estuaries: 2015–16 and 2019–20.
  • Burnett Mary had the largest decline in recent years, associated with extreme rainfall events in 2021–22 when annual river discharges were 9 times greater than the long-term median.

Seagrass condition

Seagrass is vulnerable to events that reduce light such as changes in ocean turbulence, increased sediment runoff and algal growth, as it relies on photosynthesis to survive. A higher seagrass condition index value reflects improved seagrass condition whereas a low seagrass condition index value indicates poorer seagrass condition.

Seagrass condition has fluctuated over the reporting period. Trends are similar when grouped by latitude (northern regions – Cape York, Wet Tropics, central regions – Burdekin, Mackay Whitsunday, southern regions – Fitzroy, Burnett Mary). 

  • In 2022–23, Wet Tropics and Burdekin had index scores of 0.49. 
  • Burdekin has fluctuated the most, ranging from an index of 0.09 in 2010–11 (after Severe Tropical Cyclone Yasi hit near Mission Beach in February 2011) to a peak of 0.79 in 2016–17 and back to 0.49 in 2022–23. 
  • Mackay Whitsunday was the only region with an index at or above 0.5 (0.50) in 2022–23. However, this was still below the 2015–16 peak of 0.57 before Cyclone Debbie hit in March 2017. 
  • Southern regions have declined in recent years and in 2022–23, Burnett Mary had the lowest condition (0.16).

Coral condition 

Cyclones, floodwaters, crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks and coral bleaching during marine heatwaves have impacted regional coral condition. A higher coral condition index value reflects improved coral condition whereas a low coral condition index value indicates poorer coral condition.

  • Compared to 2010–11, coral condition index in 2022–23 has improved in Wet Tropics and Burdekin. Corals in Burdekin and Wet Tropics were damaged when Cyclone Yasi hit in February 2011. 
  • In 2022–23, only coral in Wet Tropics had an average coral condition index score above 0.5 (0.55).
  • Mackay Whitsunday had the best coral condition index value (0.61 in 2015–16) until Cyclone Debbie caused severe coral loss in March 2017 and subsequent years. Coral condition dropped to 0.28 in 2019–20 before recovery commenced. Condition scores remain low (0.36). 
  • Fitzroy had the lowest coral condition scores over most of the time series and 2022–23 scores (0.32) were similar to 2010–11 (0.31). 

Mackay Whitsunday case study

Different marine condition metrics respond at different rates to impacts and disturbances as can be seen at a regional scale. 

  • Water quality fluctuates the most, typically in response to seasonal or episodic river discharges and accompanying sediment and nutrient loads.
  • Seagrass condition is closely linked to light availability and tends to follow water quality movements but with some lag due to resilience from seedbanks.
  • Coral condition appears relatively more stable, but recovery is slow. Acute impacts from severe tropical cyclones like Cyclone Debbie in 2017 can have lasting effects, particularly where corals or seagrass are damaged or destroyed.

Marine ecosystem services

Wild fish provisioning

The marine environment provides several ecosystem services including wild fish provisioning, which has been estimated for Queensland State-managed fisheries in this release.

Physical estimates of wild fish provisioning vary according to market demand, fishery management, stock assessments and environmental conditions. In contrast, monetary value is shaped by market factors such as changes in prices, export demand, quotas and licence fees, which are influenced by supply and demand as well as fishery management settings. Note that these estimates include catch from commercial fishing only. 

In 2021–22, the Marine realm provided 6,130 tonnes of wild fish to fisheries, with an ecosystem service value of $5.42 million. The proportion of wild fish caught by weight was:

  • Finfish 37.0% (2,268 tonnes)
  • Crustaceans 61.5% (3,772 tonnes)
  • Molluscs 1.5% (90 tonnes).

Between 2017–18 and 2021–22, after sustainable catch limits were introduced:

  • Finfish catch decreased by 32.2% and ecosystem service value declined by 20.9%
  • Crustacean catch decreased by 22.1% and ecosystem service value declined by 19.9%
  • Mollusc catch decreased by 90.7% and ecosystem service value declined by 89.6%.

In 2021–22:

  • 23.2% of the total annual catch (1,422 tonnes) was from Burnett Mary, with an ecosystem service value of $1.24 million
  • 20.6% of the total annual catch (1,262 tonnes) was from Burdekin, with an ecosystem service value of $1.1 million
  • 21.0% of the total ecosystem service value ($1.14 million) was from Fitzroy, with a total annual catch of 1,065 tonnes (17.4%).

Recreation-related cultural services

Cultural ecosystem services capture the experiential and non-material connections between people and ecosystems. These services include recreational ecosystem services, which capture the benefits of undertaking activities within an ecosystem. This account reports estimates for recreational services associated with commercial visits to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) and are reported by GBRMP Management Area (MA). To see how the GBRMP MAs relate to GBR regions, refer to the methodology.

In 2022–23, there were 2.2 million commercial visits to the GBRMP, with a monetary value totalling $10.3 million. Visitation patterns varied across Management Areas and activities. In 2022–23:

  • Visits were dominated by full day trips (63.0%), followed by part day trips (16.7%). Coral viewing accounted for 6.6% while scenic flights represented 2.5% of GBRMP visits. 244,921 (11.1%) visits were exempt from fees.
  • The Townsville/Whitsunday MA accounted for approximately half of GBRMP visits (1,085,318 or 49.3%), followed by the Cairns/Cooktown MA (926,462 visits, 42.1%). Far Northern MA accounted for less than one per cent (7,792 visits). 
  • Most coral viewing occurred in the Cairns/Cooktown MA (137,457 or 94.3%).
  • Scenic flights mostly occurred in the Cairns/Cooktown (41.0%) and the Townsville/Whitsunday (31.9%) MA.
  • Three-quarters of part day trips occurred in the Townsville/Whitsunday MA (273,506 visits).

*Number of scenic flights and coral viewing visits in the Far Northern MA and scenic flights in Mackay/Capricorn MA were not available for publication (but are included in totals).

Annual visitation gradually increased to a peak in 2016–17 before declining sharply during COVID-19. Visitation totals have rebounded since 2020–21, almost returning to pre-COVID levels in 2022–23.

Supplementary data

Supplementary statistics are included in this release to give socio-economic and social context to the accounts. They provide information about population, industry, jobs, tourism and social attitudes to the GBR. 

Socio-economic and tourism statistics

The economic impact of different industries to the Great Barrier Reef community can be illustrated by comparing population, employment, and tourist visitation statistics across Tourism regions. To see how these Tourism regions relate to GBR regions, refer to the methodology.

  • Tropical North Queensland had the highest population (298,927 people) and total jobs (239,428 jobs).
  • Townsville was second with 240,261 people and 197,886 jobs.
  • Whitsunday had the smallest population (38,509 people), and the highest proportion of employee jobs (90.9%).
  • Fraser Coast had the lowest proportion of employee jobs per population (57.0%), reflecting the high proportion of retirees.

The breakdown of jobs by select industries varied by region. In 2021–22,

  • Whitsundays had the highest proportion of tourism jobs (14.5%) followed by Fraser Coast (7.6%).
  • Because of its relative size, Tropical North Queensland contributed the most tourism jobs to the Great Barrier Reef (15,035 or 37.5% of all direct tourism jobs), despite tourism jobs only accounting for 6.3% of all jobs in Tropical North Queensland.
  • Bundaberg had the highest proportion of jobs from the Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing industry (10.6%) followed by Whitsundays (7.5%).
  • Gladstone had the highest proportion of manufacturing jobs (8.1%) followed by Bundaberg (6.2%). 
  • Mining jobs were highest in Mackay Isaac (8.4%) followed by Gladstone (5.3%).

In 2022–23, tourism consumption was $13 billion across all Great Barrier Reef relevant Tourism regions. This was 34.8% more than the highest recorded pre-COVID expenditure in 2017–18. The greatest tourism employing region, Tropical North Queensland, also had the highest tourism consumption. Tourism regions were affected differently by COVID-19, but all 8 regions had higher tourist consumption in 2022–23 than in 2016–17. While Tropical North Queensland had the greatest absolute increase, Mackay Isaac's tourist consumption increased by the greatest proportion over this period (74.9%).

Social attitudes

Residents of the Great Barrier Reef region were surveyed as part of the Social and Economic Long-Term Monitoring Program by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) 4 times between 2013 and 2023 to understand how social attitudes towards the GBR have changed over time.

Health and wellbeing

Most respondents agreed that visiting the GBR helped them unwind and de-stress and made them feel better physically. 

  • In 2023, 88.8% of participants agreed that visiting the GBR helped them unwind and de-stress, up by 4.4 percentage points from 2021.
  • Visiting the GBR also had a physical benefit for 86.2% of participants, up by 5.3 percentage points since 2021.

Respondents were asked how much they agreed with the statements ‘Visiting the GBR helps me unwind and de-stress’ (n = 2,017), ‘Visiting the GBR makes me feel better physically’ (n = 2,017), ‘Living in this region contributes positively to my overall wellbeing’ (n = 2,317).

Living in the region contributed positively to the overall wellbeing of 85.0% of participants in 2023. This was highest in the Mackay Whitsunday region at 88.4%. For other regions, level of agreement increased from south to north, ranging from 80.5% in the southern-most region, Burnett Mary, to 87.9% in the Wet Tropics in the north.

Respondents were asked how much they agreed with the statement ‘Living in this [GBR] region contributes positively to my overall well-being’. Number of respondents: n = 2,317. Cape York is not shown due to low respondent numbers (n = 13).

Ecosystem and species appreciation

The biodiversity and the existence of the GBR is highly valued by residents across all GBR regions. 

  • Two-thirds (65.9%) of 2023 respondents valued the biodiversity of the GBR extremely highly (score of 10), while almost all (97.5%) valued biodiversity at a score greater than 5. 
  • Wet Tropics had the highest proportion of respondents valuing biodiversity extremely highly (71.5%), followed by Mackay Whitsunday (69.1%).
  • 60% of respondents valued the existence of the GBR extremely highly and 94.3% of respondents valued GBR existence at a score greater than 5.
  • Wet Tropics had the highest proportion of respondents valuing the existence of the GBR extremely highly (62.9%), followed by Burdekin (62.3%).

Respondents were asked how much they value these aspects of the GBR. Number of respondents: n = 2,317.

Visiting the Great Barrier Reef

COVID-19 had a lasting impact on visitation frequency by Great Barrier Reef residents. 

  • In 2017, before COVID-19, one third (32.8%) of the respondents visited the GBR weekly or more often and 13% did not visit at all.
  • During 2021, half the respondents (49.8%) did not visit the GBR at all, and only 6.3% visited at least weekly. 
  • By 2023, weekly (or more frequent) visits had only recovered to 12.5%, while 31.2% did not visit at all.

Respondents were asked ‘In the previous 12 months, how often did you visit the Great Barrier Reef for recreation (including beaches, bays, creeks, islands, open water, and coral reefs)?’ Number of respondents in 2013: n = 3,014; in 2017: n = 1,754; in 2021: n = 2,434; and in 2023: n = 2,317.

Indigenous values

We recognise the Traditional Owners of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and its catchments as custodians of these Lands and Sea Country and acknowledge their management of and connection to the region's land and sea. Over 170 Reef and Catchment Traditional Owner groups live on and care for the land and waters that flow into the GBR. From the Torres Strait Islands in the north, to near Bundaberg in the south, these groups have custodianship and cultural responsibilities to care for their Land and Sea Country. Their connection with the lands, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and sea Country within the region is ancient, continuous, and inseparable from the health of the Reef itself. The engagement of Traditional Owners in the management of the GBR and its biodiversity reflects and recognises past generations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Protecting the Reef is not only an environmental imperative but a cultural obligation, safeguarding the spiritual, social, and economic wellbeing of Traditional Owner communities and future generations.

We acknowledge the importance and value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's knowledge. This initial account was developed within limited timeframes, which meant that it did not allow for meaningful consultation with Reef and Catchment Traditional Owners that is essential to this work. Any future versions of the experimental accounts that seek to include Traditional Knowledge or information about Reef and Catchment Traditional Owners would prioritise meaningful engagement, ensuring prior consent and that their input informs the account before data is sourced or used.

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Related information

National Ecosystem Accounts, experimental estimates, 2022-23 financial year

Measuring and Valuing Australia's Ecosystems

Methodology

Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem Accounts, experimental estimates methodology, 2022-23 financial year

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