Food and nutrients

The ABS collected dietary information from respondents aged 2 years and over through a 24-hour dietary recall tool called Intake24. Food and beverages reported by respondents were then classified according to the AUSNUT 2023 (see details below). For this analysis, food consumption and intakes for energy and nutrients are derived only from food and beverages reported by respondents on the first 24-hour recall day (also called ‘Day 1’) and do not include consumption from the second 24-hour recall day (‘Day 2’). The analysis also excludes any dietary supplement consumption on Day 1, which is the focus of Dietary supplements.

The AUSNUT (AUStralian Food and NUTrient Database) 2023 is a set of files developed by Food Standards Australia New Zealand that enables food, dietary supplements and nutrient intake estimates to be derived from the foods reported as consumed in the NNPAS 2023. The AUSNUT classification assigns each food a unique code, which can be grouped with other foods that share similar ingredients into minor, then sub-major, and finally major food groups. There are 23 different major food groups and one dietary supplements group in the AUSNUT classification.

The same ingredient can be found in different foods across various AUSNUT food groups. This means that any one food group will not capture the total consumption of a particular ingredient from all sources. For example, dairy milk is primarily captured in the Milk products and dishes major food group, including when a respondent reported consuming milk by itself, cheese, yoghurt, ice-cream or milkshakes. However, milk consumption would also be captured in other food groups such as Non-alcoholic beverages (e.g. in flat white coffee) or Cereal based products and dishes (e.g. in porridge or quiche). For more information about the application of AUSNUT, in this analysis see Intergenerational Health and Mental Health Study (IHMHS): Concepts, Sources and Methods.

Some AUSNUT food group names have been abbreviated in this analysis for ease of reading. These are outlined in the following table.

Statistics presented in this analysis include:

• proportion of people consuming foods
• average (mean) amount of foods consumed by all people (including people who did not report consuming those foods)
• median amount of foods consumed only by people who reported consuming those foods.

Non-alcoholic beverages contains 9 sub-major groups:

• Tea
• Coffee and coffee substitutes
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices
• Fruit and vegetable drinks
• Cordials
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters
• Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks
• Water
• Other beverages/prepared beverages.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Non-alcoholic beverages was 1,926 g. Most (94.2%) of this came from:

• Water (1,352 g)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (191 g)
• Tea (153 g)
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (118 g).

Nearly all (99.6%) people consumed Non-alcoholic beverages, regardless of age and sex. Proportion of consumption varied by Non-alcoholic beverages sub-major food group:

• Water (90.4%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (49.7%)
• Tea (32.4%)
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (22.9%).

Children were more likely to consume Water than adults (97.1% compared to 88.8%). This may be partly due to adults consuming water in the form of other beverages, such as Coffee and coffee substitutes and Tea, both of which adults were much more likely to consume than children (61.5% compared to 3.0% for Coffee and coffee substitutes, and 38.5% compared to 8.1% for Tea).

Among children, a similar proportion of males and females consumed beverages from each of the sub-major groups, except for Cordials, which males were more likely to consume than females (4.1% compared to 1.9%).

Among adults:

• females were more likely than males to consume Tea (44.3% compared to 32.5%) and Water (91.1% compared to 86.3%)
• males were more likely than females to consume Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (28.2% compared to 19.6%) and Electrolyte, energy, and fortified drinks (4.5% compared to 2.3%).

For more information on consumption of sweetened beverages, such as Cordials and Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters, see Sweetened beverages.

Cereals and grains contains 6 sub-major groups:

• Flours, rice and grains
• Bread and bread rolls
• Flat breads, and savoury/sweet breads
• Pasta and pasta products (without sauce)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals
• Porridge style breakfast cereals.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Cereals and grains was 142 g, which included:

• Flours, rice and grains (47 g)
• Bread and bread rolls (35 g)
• Pasta and pasta products (without sauce) (18 g)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (15 g)
• Flat breads, and savoury/sweet breads (14 g)
• Porridge style breakfast cereals (13 g).

Eight in ten (79.1%) people consumed food from Cereals and grains, with similar proportions for males and females (78.9% and 79.2%). The proportion of people who consumed Cereals and grains varied with age, where it was:

• highest among children aged 2–4 years at 94.5%, with a progressively lower proportion among children aged 5–11 years (89.4%) and 12–17 years (79.4%)
• lowest among young adults aged 18–29 years (70.6%), with a higher proportion across each older adult age group (up to 89.5% for people aged 75 years and over).

Among these consumers of Cereals and grains, the median amount was 134 g and was higher for males than females (145 g compared to 122 g). Males also consumed more of each sub-major group than females, except for Porridge style breakfast cereals, where males and females consumed a similar amount (225 g and 209 g).

Cereal based products and dishes contains 6 sub-major groups:

• Sweet biscuits
• Savoury biscuits
• Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts
• Pastries
• Cereal-based mixed dishes, like sandwiches, pizza, and sushi
• Batter-based products, like pancakes.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Cereal based products and dishes was 229 g and was:

• higher for children than adults (242 g compared to 225 g)
• higher among males than females (265 g compared to 193 g).

Three in four (76.2%) people consumed food from Cereal based products and dishes. The proportion of people who consumed Cereal based products and dishes was:

• higher for children than for adults (87.1% compared to 73.6%)
• similar among child age groups (ranging between 85.7% and 87.5%) and most adult age groups (ranging between 70.9% and 76.3%).

Children were also more likely to consume foods from each Cereal based products and dishes sub-major food group than adults, except for Pastries where children and adults were similarly likely (12.1% and 13.1%).

More people consumed food from Cereal-based mixed dishes than any other sub-major food group in the AUSNUT classification, excluding Water. Half (52.0%) of all people aged 2 years and over reported consuming foods from this group which includes sandwiches, pasta and noodle dishes, burgers and pizza. Males were more likely to consume Cereal-based mixed dishes than females (54.7% compared to 49.4%). Across age:

• children were more likely to consume Cereal-based mixed dishes than adults (62.1% compared to 49.5%)
• children aged 12–17 years were more likely to consume Cereal-based mixed dishes than any other age group (67.4%)
• adults aged 65–74 years (40.1%) and 75 years and over (37.3%) were less likely to consume Cereal-based mixed dishes than any other age group.

Within Cereal-based mixed dishes, the most common minor food groups (including both prepared at or outside the home) consumed were:

• Sandwiches and filled rolls (23.8%)
• Pasta/noodle dishes, not including instant noodles or stir fries (13.0%)
• Burgers (8.3%)
• Pizza (6.8%).

Fruit products and dishes contains 10 sub-major groups:

• Wild harvested fruits
• Pome fruit, like apples and pears
• Berry fruit
• Citrus fruit, like oranges and mandarins
• Stone fruit, like peaches and plums
• Tropical fruit, like bananas
• Other fruit, like grapes, kiwifruit and melons
• Mixtures of two or more fruits
• Dried or preserved fruit
• Fruit-based mixed dishes, like berry crumbles.
   

In 2023, people consumed an average of 103 g of food from Fruit products and dishes. Average daily consumption of Fruit products and dishes:

• was similar for males and females (104 g and 102 g)
• was higher for children aged 2–4 years (181 g) and 5–11 years (161 g) than any other age group
• decreased with age for children, from 181 g for children aged 2–4 years to 108 g for children aged 12–17 years
• was lowest for young adults aged 18–29 years (75 g), except for people aged 30–49 years (88 g) where the difference was not significant.

Almost half (49.3%) of all people aged 2 years and over consumed food from Fruit products and dishes. Children were more likely to consume Fruit products and dishes than adults (65.0% compared to 45.4%). This difference explains, in part, why average consumption was higher among children than adults.

Within Fruit products and dishes, the most common sub-major food groups consumed were:

• Tropical fruit (21.3%)
• Pome fruit (15.8%)
• Berry fruit (11.0%)
• Other fruit (8.7%)
• Citrus fruit (8.2%).

Children aged 2–4 years were more likely to consume Berry fruit than people in any other age group (32.3%).

The proportion of Tropical fruit consumption was:

• similar for children and adults (22.0% and 21.2%)
• higher for adults in every age group than any other Fruit products and dishes sub-major food group.

The proportion of Pome fruit consumption was:

• higher for children than adults (28.8% compared to 12.7%)
• higher for children (28.8%) than any other Fruit products and dishes sub-major food group.

Among consumers of Fruit products and dishes, the median amount was relatively constant with age, varying between 146 g and 175 g, and was greater for males than females (166 g compared to 147 g). For Fruit products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount among consumers of:

• Pome fruit was 166 g, equivalent to one medium apple
• Tropical fruit was 127 g, equivalent to one medium banana
• Other fruit was 127 g, about one kiwifruit plus ten grapes
• Stone fruit was 82 g, equivalent to one nectarine
• Citrus fruit was 72 g, equivalent to one large mandarin
• Berry fruit was 63 g, about three medium strawberries.

Meat and poultry products and dishes contains 10 sub-major groups:

• Wild harvested meat
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed
• Mammalian game meats
• Poultry and feathered game
• Organ meats and offal products and dishes
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys
• Processed meat
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes
• Processed meat-based mixed dishes
• Poultry-based mixed dishes.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Meat and poultry products and dishes was 133 g, with males consuming more than females (158 g compared to 109 g). Average consumption of Meat and poultry products and dishes:

• was higher for adults than children (141 g compared to 103 g)
• was lowest among children aged 2–4 years at 60 g, with progressively higher consumption among children aged 5–11 years (88 g) and 12–17 years (142 g)
• ranged from 160 g among adults aged 18–29 years to 117 g among adults aged 75 years and over, with generally lower consumption across older adult age groups.

Six in ten (62.2%) people consumed food from Meat and poultry products and dishes. As well as consuming a higher average amount, males were also more likely than females to consume Meat and poultry products and dishes (64.9% compared to 59.6%).

Among consumers of Meat and poultry products and dishes, the median amount was 198 g for males and 143 g for females. For Meat and poultry products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount among consumers of:

• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed was 116 g, which is about one medium pork steak
• Poultry and feathered game was 93 g, about one small chicken thigh
• Processed meat was 50 g, about four slices of shaved ham
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes was 210 g, about one large veal schnitzel
• Poultry-based mixed dishes was 204 g, about one large chicken schnitzel.

Milk products and dishes contains 8 sub-major groups:

• Dairy milk
• Yoghurt
• Cream
• Cheese
• Frozen milk products
• Custards
• Other dishes where milk or a milk product is the major component
• Flavoured milks and milkshakes.

In 2023, the average daily consumption of Milk products and dishes was 172 g and was higher for males than females (190 g compared to 155 g). The average daily consumption of Milk products and dishes was:

• highest among males in children aged 2–4 years through to 12–17 years (between 261 g and 270 g), and lower among adult male age groups (between 155 g and 209 g)
• lowest among females in age groups 12–17 years through to 50–64 years (between 123 g and 146 g), with higher consumption in both younger and older age groups.

Seven in ten (70.3%) people consumed food from Milk products and dishes. Although males consumed a higher average amount than females, the proportion who consumed foods from Milk products and dishes was similar (69.5% and 71.1%).

Overall, the proportion of consumption was highest among children and older people, and lowest among young adults. The proportion of people who consumed Milk products and dishes:

• among children, was highest for children aged 2–4 years (85.5%), with a lower proportion of consumers for 5–11 years (77.9%) and 12–17 years (66.3%)
• was lowest among adults aged 18–29 years (58.4%) with a higher proportion of consumers across each subsequent older adult age group.

Among consumers of Milk products and dishes, the median amount consumed for males was 191 g and for females was 154 g. For Milk products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount among consumers of:

• Dairy milk was 163 g, which is about two thirds of a cup of cow’s milk
• Cheese was 26 g, about four cracker-sized cheese slices
• Yoghurt was 110 g, about one small pouch of yoghurt
• Frozen milk products was 72 g, about one ice cream stick.

Vegetable products and dishes contains 10 sub-major groups:

• Wild harvested vegetables
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes
• Broccoli and similar vegetables
• Carrot and similar root vegetables
• Leaf and stalk vegetables
• Peas and beans
• Tomato and tomato products
• Other fruiting vegetables, such as pumpkin, zucchini or mushrooms
• Other vegetables and combinations, such as onion, garlic, or peas and corn
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes, such as coleslaw or zucchini slice.

In 2023, people consumed a daily average of 153 g of food from Vegetable products and dishes, including:

• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (45 g)
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes (39 g)
• Other fruiting vegetables (20 g)
• Other vegetables and combinations (12 g).

Seven in ten (70.5%) people consumed food from Vegetable products and dishes. The proportion of people who consumed Vegetable products and dishes was:

• higher for females than males (72.1% compared to 68.8%)
• similar in most age groups between 2–4 years and 18–29 years (between 59.3% and 66.7%) and higher for people aged 30–49 years (71.6%) and in age groups 50 years and over (between 73.9% and 77.1%).

Within Vegetable products and dishes, the most common sub-major food groups consumed were:

• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (26.7%)
• Other fruiting vegetables (21.7%)
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes (21.5%)
• Other vegetables and combinations (16.3%)
• Carrot and similar root vegetables (12.8%).

The Potatoes and potato products and dishes sub-major group comprises:

• Potatoes
• Potato products (like hashbrowns, chips and potato wedges)
• Potato mixed dishes (like potato bakes and mashed potato made with milk).

In 2023:

• people were more likely to eat Potato products (15.2%) than Potatoes (6.5%) or Potato mixed dishes (6.2%)
• one in fourteen (7.1%) people consumed only Potato products and no other foods within Vegetable products and dishes.

Among consumers of Vegetable products and dishes, the median amount was 183 g for males and 159 g for females. For Vegetable products and dishes sub-major food groups, the median amount among consumers of:

• Potatoes and potato products and dishes was 149 g (which is about a medium serve of chips), and higher for males than females (153 g compared to 131 g)
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes was 119 g, about two zucchini fritters
• Broccoli and similar vegetables was 86 g, about two medium pieces of cauliflower
• Other fruiting vegetables was 74 g, about half a cob of corn
• Other vegetables and combinations was 72 g, about half a medium raw onion
• Carrot and similar root vegetables was 48 g, about three sticks of carrot.

Special dietary foods contains formulated foods including:

• sport and protein beverages or powders
• meal replacements bars, beverages or powders
• other supplementary and medical foods, beverages or powders (for example, an oral supplement drink like Sustagen).

The proportion of people who consumed Special dietary foods was:

• less than one in twenty-five (3.8%) for people aged 2 years and over
• higher among adults than children (4.4% compared to 1.8%)
• highest for people aged 18–29 years and 30–49 years (both 5.3%).

Males were more likely to consume Special dietary foods than females (4.5% compared to 3.2%). Among those aged 18–29 years, the proportion for males was more than twice that for females (7.5% compared to 3.5%). For people aged 75 years and over, a higher proportion of females consumed Special dietary foods than males (4.9% compared to 1.6%).

Macronutrient estimates are derived only from food and beverages reported by respondents on Day 1 and may be an under-estimate of the true level. Analysis of ‘usual intakes’ using modelled data from both Day 1 and 2 will be the focus of an upcoming Usual Nutrient Intakes release.

Nutrient Reference Values (NRVs) are a set of recommendations for nutrient intake based on currently available scientific knowledge. This includes, for each macronutrient, an Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) which estimates the range of intake that would allow for an adequate intake of all the other nutrients whilst maximising general health outcomes[6].

AMDRs are presented alongside macronutrient intakes in this analysis to provide context only. They do not indicate levels of deficiency or excessive intake in the population as macronutrient estimates are not adjusted for usual intakes. Other NRVs for macronutrients have not been included in this analysis.

Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for the body and are particularly important as fuel for brain cells. The two major types of carbohydrates are sugars and starch (also called complex carbohydrates). Starch is found in many foods including starchy vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, peas and corn, as well as grain foods such as wheat, oats and rice. Sugars are found naturally in foods such as fruit and milk products but are also added to a range of processed and refined foods[6].

In 2023, the average daily carbohydrate intake was 212 g and contributed to 43.5% of daily energy intake, slightly below the AMDR lower bound. This included:

• 84 g of sugars, contributing to 16.6% of daily energy intake
• 125 g of starch, contributing to 26.3% of daily energy intake.

Although males had a higher carbohydrate intake than females (236 g compared to 188 g), their proportion of energy from carbohydrate were similar (43.4% and 43.6%).

Between 2011–12 and 2023, average daily carbohydrate intake decreased from 229 g to 212 g. This trend was observed across all age groups, except among people aged 12–17 years where the decrease was not significant. The proportion of energy intake from carbohydrate also decreased from 44.9% to 43.5%. Considering sugars and starch individually, the average daily intake of:

• sugars decreased from 105 g in 2011–12 to 84 g in 2023, and its proportion of energy intake decreased (from 20.0% to 16.6%)
• starch increased marginally from 120 g in 2011–12 to 125 g in 2023, and its proportion of energy intake increased (from 24.2% to 26.3%).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to sugars intake were:

• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (10.3%)
• Dairy milk (6.6%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices or Fruit and vegetable drinks (5.6% combined)
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (5.3%)
• Sweet biscuits (4.3%)
• Sugar, honey and syrups (4.3%)
• Pome fruit (4.2%)
• Tropical fruit (4.2%).

The leading sub-major food groups contributing to starch intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (25.0%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls prepared at or outside the home (7.6% combined), Pasta/noodle dishes prepared at or outside the home (5.6% combined), and Pizza prepared at or outside the home (4.4% combined)
• Flours, rice and other grains (12.9%) – mostly from Rice and rice grain fractions (12.4%)
• Bread and bread rolls (12.3%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (6.7%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (5.7%).

Free sugars include all the added sugars put into foods during their processing or preparation as well as the sugars that are naturally present in fruit and vegetable juice, syrups and honey. Sugar naturally present in unrefined foods, such as whole fruit or unflavoured milk, is not considered free sugar[9].

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that free sugars should make up less than 10% of an individual's dietary energy, and that a further reduction to less than 5% of dietary energy would provide additional health benefits[9].

In 2023, the average daily free sugars intake was 43 g per person, most of which came from added sugars (38 g or 87.3%) rather than from juice, syrups or honey. The average proportion of daily energy intake from free sugars:

• was 8.2%, within the WHO recommendation
• was predominantly from discretionary foods (6.2%) compared to non-discretionary (2.0%)
• decreased from 11.0% in 2011–12, with large decreases for people aged between 2–49 years
• was higher for children and young adults aged 5–11 years (9.4%), 12–17 years (10.1%), and 18–29 years (9.8%) than any other age groups
• was similar for males and females (8.3% and 8.1%).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to free sugars intake were:

• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (19.8%)
• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices or Fruit and vegetable drinks (9.0% combined)
• Sugar, honey and syrups (8.2%)
• Sweet biscuits (7.9%)
• Cakes, muffins, scones, cake-type desserts (6.4%).

Both animal and plant foods provide protein including, meat, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, tofu, legumes, beans, nuts and seeds. Proteins consumed in the diet are broken down to make new proteins for the body or to be used as a source of energy[6].

In 2023, people aged 2 years and over had an average daily protein intake of 88 g. Males consumed more protein than females (100 g compared to 77 g) and a larger proportion of their daily energy came from protein (19.3% compared to 18.8%).

Between 2011–12 and 2023 the proportion of daily energy from protein:

• increased for people aged 2 years and over (from 17.9% to 19.0%), due to large relative decreases in contributions from other macronutrients like carbohydrate and alcohol
• increased for both males (from 17.9% to 19.3%) and females (from 18.0% to 18.8%).

While average protein intake among all people aged 2 years and over remained steady (88 g in both 2011–12 and 2023), it increased for children aged 12–17 years (from 86 g to 96 g). In this age group, intake increased among males from 96 g in 2011–12 to 114 g in 2023, while intake among females remained similar (75 g in 2011–12 and 79 g in 2023).

The leading sub-major food groups contributing to protein intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (19.6%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls prepared at or outside the home (6.6% combined), Pasta/noodle dishes prepared at or outside the home (3.8% combined) and Pizza prepared at or outside the home (3.4% combined)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (7.5%)
• Poultry and feathered game (7.4%) and Poultry-based mixed dishes (7.0%)
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes (4.6%)
• Bread and bread rolls (4.1%)
• Dairy milk (4.0%).

Fat has the highest energy density of the macronutrients. In addition to being a concentrated source of energy, fats help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin A. Fats are mainly classified as saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, or trans fatty acids depending on their chemical structure. Saturated fats are mainly found in animal-based foods whilst mono- and polyunsaturated fats are mainly found in plant-based foods. Other fats in the diet include phospholipids, phytosterols and cholesterol[6].

In 2023, the average daily fat intake for people aged 2 years and over was 73 g which contributed 32.4% of daily energy intake. This included:

• 28 g of saturated fat, which contributed to 12.5% of daily energy
• 28 g of monounsaturated fat, which contributed to 12.3% of daily energy
• 11 g of polyunsaturated fat, which contributed 4.9% of daily energy
• 1.1 g of trans fatty acids, which contributed 0.5% of daily energy.

Although fat intake has stayed the same over the last decade (73 g in both 2011–12 and 2023), its contribution to daily energy has increased over this time (from 30.9% to 32.4%). This was mainly driven by the decreases in carbohydrate and alcohol intake, meaning fat contributed relatively more to energy in 2023 than in 2011–12.

Eating greater amounts of saturated and trans fatty acids is linked with an increased risk of heart disease and high blood cholesterol levels. The WHO recommends that saturated and trans fatty acids together make up 10% or less of total energy intake, consistent with the AMDR for these fats[6][10]. Additionally, the WHO recommends that 1% or less of energy intake come from trans fatty acids alone[10]. Over the last decade:

• the average proportion of daily energy from saturated and trans fatty acids together has increased from 12.4% in 2011–12 to 13.0% in 2023, which is above the WHO guideline
• the average proportion of daily energy from trans fatty acids alone has remained similar (0.6% in 2011–12 and 0.5% in 2023), which is within the WHO guideline.

Around two-fifths (39.9%) of the average daily energy intake from saturated and trans fatty acids came from discretionary foods.

Unsaturated (mono- and polyunsaturated) fats, on the other hand, are an important part of a healthy diet and can help reduce the risk of heart disease and lower cholesterol levels when they replace saturated fats and trans fatty acids. Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are important types of polyunsaturated fat that can be found in legumes, some vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds[6]. In 2023:

• linoleic acid contributed 4.1% to daily energy intake, which is on the lower end of the AMDR (4%–10%)
• alpha-linolenic acid contributed 0.6% to daily energy intake, which is within the AMDR (0.4%–1%).

In contrast to carbohydrate and protein, the contribution of fat to daily energy was more constant across different age groups. However, there were some differences in the type of fat consumed, with children aged 2–11 years and people aged 75 years and over:

• having a higher proportion of saturated fats and trans fatty acids contributing to daily energy intake than people aged between 12–74 years
• having a lower proportion of mono- and polyunsaturated fats contributing to daily energy intake than people aged between 12–74 years.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to fat intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (17.0%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (5.0%)
• Potatoes and potato products and dishes (4.7%)
• Pastries (3.9%)
• Dairy milk (3.9%)
• Nuts and nut products (3.8%)
• Sweet biscuits (3.1%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (3.1%)
• Cheese (3.1%).

The foods contributing to fat varied between children and adults. The proportion of fat from:

• Cereal based products and dishes was higher for children than adults (31.8% compared to 26.8%)
• Milk products and dishes was higher for children than adults (15.1% compared to 10.6%)
• Seed and nut products and dishes was lower for children than adults (1.7% compared to 4.5%)
• Non-alcoholic beverages was lower for children than adults (1.5% compared to 4.1%).

Pure alcohol is a relatively high source of energy, second only to fat in energy density. Consumption of alcohol can be harmful to health and no level can be guaranteed as completely safe[6]. Alcohol intake as a nutrient refers to pure alcohol (ethanol) and intake estimates are calculated from alcoholic drinks or other foods that contain small amounts due to their ingredients. There is no AMDR for alcohol, however it is generally recommended to account for less than 5% of energy intake[6]. For information on the consumption of Alcoholic beverages as a food group, see Food and beverage consumption.

In 2023, the average daily alcohol intake (expressed as pure ethanol) for people aged 2 years and over was 6.6 g, which contributed 2.2% of daily energy intake. However, alcohol intake and its contribution to energy varied by age and sex. In 2023, the proportion of daily energy intake from alcohol was:

• negligible for children aged 2–17 years
• 2.7% for adults aged 18 years and over
• higher for adult males (3.1%) than adult females (2.4%), particularly within older age groups 65 years and over
• highest for males aged 65–74 years (4.7%), although this was not significantly different from males aged 50–64 years or 75 years and over (both 4.0%)
• lowest among adults for females aged 18–29 years (1.0%).

Despite differing alcohol consumption patterns, the proportion of daily energy intake from alcohol was less than 5% for all age and sex groups.

Almost one in four (23.9%) people aged 18 years and over reported consuming Alcoholic beverages on Day 1. For this population, alcohol contributed to 11.3% of their daily energy intake, more than double the general recommendation.

Among adults, the contribution of alcohol to daily energy intake decreased over the last decade (from 4.3% in 2011–12 to 2.7% in 2023), including for all age groups except people aged 75 years and over where the decrease was not significant. Previous results from the National Health Survey 2022 recorded an overall decrease in risky levels of alcohol consumption over a similar time.

Micronutrient estimates are based on Day 1 food and beverages consumption only and exclude micronutrients sourced from supplements. One in three (33.6%) people took a dietary supplement on Day 1, which contributes to their overall nutrient intake. Analysis of ‘usual intakes’ using modelled data from both Day 1 and 2 will be the focus of an upcoming Usual Nutrient Intakes release.

NRVs are a set of recommendations for nutrient intakes based on currently available scientific knowledge. These recommendations may include:

• Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) – the daily amount estimated to meet the intake requirements of half the healthy individuals in a particular age, sex and life stage group.
• Suggested Dietary Target (SDT) – a daily average intake from food and beverages that may help in prevention of chronic disease[6].

EARs or SDTs are presented alongside micronutrient intakes in this analysis where relevant to provide context only. They do not indicate levels of deficiency or excessive intake in the population as micronutrient estimates are not adjusted for usual intakes. Other NRVs for micronutrients have not been included in this analysis.

Absolute (total) micronutrient intakes are mainly influenced by the amount of food and drink consumed, and hence energy intake. It is also useful to consider energy-adjusted micronutrient intakes, which are expressed as a nutrient amount per 1,000 kJ of energy. This helps control for factors like age, sex, bodyweight and physical activity that influence energy requirements, and focuses instead on dietary composition. Both total intakes (Table 1) and energy-adjusted intakes (Table 3) for nutrients are available in the Data downloads.

Thiamin (vitamin B1) helps the body convert food into energy for the brain, nervous system, and muscles. Thiamin is found in small quantities in a range of foods, but the main source is cereal foods. In Australia, wheat flour for bread making is fortified with thiamin[6].

In 2023, the average daily thiamin intake was:

• 1.6 milligrams (mg) for males and 1.2 mg for females
• higher for males than females in every age group, except for children aged 2–4 years where the difference was not significant (1.3 mg and 1.2 mg), reflecting the overall higher intakes of thiamin-rich foods among males
• higher for people aged 12–17 years (1.8 mg) than every other age group.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to thiamin intake in 2023 were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (23.2%)
• Bread and bread rolls (13.5%)
• Yeast extracts, such as spreads like Vegemite (9.4%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (8.8%).

Thiamin intake has decreased slightly from 2011–12 to 2023 (1.6 mg compared to 1.4 mg), primarily due to decreases in intake in the adult population.

Average energy-adjusted thiamin intake for people aged 2 years and over remained similar between 2011–12 and 2023 (both 0.2 mg/1,000 kJ). This indicates no change in the make-up of the diet in relation to thiamin over this time and that the decrease in thiamin intake is likely a result of the overall general reduction in food consumption.

Vitamin B6 helps with the metabolism of protein, carbohydrates, and fat, and helps in the formation of red blood cells. It is found in many foods including organ and muscle meats, fortified breakfast cereals, and starchy vegetables[6][12]. Vitamin B6 can also be sourced from dietary supplements, either standalone or as part of a multivitamin or multimineral[12]. High doses of vitamin B6 can lead to adverse side effects, including peripheral neuropathy. This usually occurs following long-term use of medicines containing vitamin B6 and is not associated with normal dietary intake levels[13]. The information presented is based on vitamin B6 intake from Day 1 food and beverage consumption and excludes intake from supplements.

In 2023, the average daily vitamin B6 intake was 1.4 mg for males and 1.1 mg for females. Among adults, intake was highest for people aged 18–29 years (1.6 mg), with progressively lower intakes across older age groups.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B6 intake were:

• Electrolyte, energy and fortified drinks (14.6%), which contributed to 31.2% of intake for people aged 18–29 years
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (11.4%)
• Poultry and feathered game (6.9%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (6.8%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (6.7%)
• Tropical fruit (4.0%).

Average daily vitamin B6 intake has decreased over the last decade from 1.4 mg in 2011–12 to 1.2 mg in 2023. However, average energy-adjusted intake has remained stable (at 0.2 mg/1,000 kJ), suggesting the decrease in total vitamin B6 intake is likely a result of the overall decrease in food consumption.

Folate is a B group vitamin (B9) that the body uses to make DNA and other genetic material. It is essential for healthy growth and development, particularly for the foetus in the first 3 months of pregnancy. Folate is found naturally in foods such as green leafy vegetables, fruits and grains[6]. Mandatory fortification of bread making flour with folic acid, a stable form of folate used in supplements and fortification, has been in place in Australia since 2009[14].

Dietary folate equivalents (DFE) are used to report the total amount of folate intake, to account for the different forms it is consumed in. In 2023, the average daily intake of DFE was:

• 647 micrograms (µg) for males and 522 µg for females
• higher for children aged 12–17 years (698 µg) than any other age group
• lower for females aged 18–29 years (474 µg) than females aged 12–17 (587 µg), 65–74 (526 µg) and 75 years and over (559 µg).

The difference in DFE intake between males and females reflects the higher consumption of Cereals and grains, and Cereal based products and dishes, among males. The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to DFE intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (26.0%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls prepared at or outside the home (13.6% combined), Burgers prepared at or outside the home (5.0% combined) and Pizza prepared at or outside the home (4.0% combined)
• Bread and bread rolls (17.7%)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (10.3%)
• Flat breads, and savoury/sweet breads (4.3%)
• Yeast extracts, such as spreads like Vegemite (4.1%).

For people aged 2 years and over, average daily DFE intake decreased from 613 µg in 2011–12 to 584 µg in 2023. This is mainly driven by people aged 18–29 years and, to a lesser extent, people aged 30–49 years. Over the last decade:

• DFE intake decreased for both males aged 18–29 years (from 711 µg in 2011–12 to 616 µg in 2023) and females aged 18–29 years (from 539 µg to 474 µg)
• intake also decreased for males aged 30–49 years (from 681 µg to 621 µg).

Average energy-adjusted DFE intake for people aged 2 years and over decreased from 77.3 µg/1,000 kJ in 2011–12 to 75.1 µg/1,000 kJ in 2023, mainly driven by the same age groups as above (18–29 years and 30–49 years). This indicates a decline in the make-up of folate in the diet combined with the decrease in overall food consumption that is likely causing absolute DFE intake to fall.

Vitamin B12 is important for several functions in the body. It helps keep the body’s nerve and blood cells healthy and helps to make DNA. Almost all vitamin B12 comes from animal products. If left untreated, vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to anaemia, nerve damage and brain damage[6].

In 2023, the average daily vitamin B12 intake for people aged 2 years and over was:

• 4.0 µg for males
• 3.0 µg for females.

Average vitamin B12 intake was consistent across age among females aged 12 years and over (between 2.9 µg and 3.2 µg), and while the range was larger for males (between 3.7 µg and 4.5 µg) the differences between age groups were generally not significant.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B12 intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (15.1%)
• Dairy milk (12.2%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (7.2%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (6.5%)
• Sausages, frankfurts and saveloys (5.9%)
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes (4.7%).

Over the last decade:

• vitamin B12 intake decreased from 4.4 µg in 2011–12 to 3.5 µg in 2023
• decreases in vitamin B12 intake were observed across all age groups, except for people aged 75 years and over where the decrease was not significant
• the leading sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin B12 intake remained similar.

Results from the National Health Measures Survey 2022–24 indicate that vitamin B12 levels in the blood increased over a similar period. This apparent difference could be due to several factors including increased dietary supplement use or under-reporting of foods consumed containing vitamin B12.

Vitamin C is an antioxidant and supports a range of metabolic processes. Fruit and vegetables such as citrus, kiwi fruit, broccoli and sprouts are good sources of vitamin C. Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy with symptoms including gingivitis, oedema, ulcers and a tendency to bruise or bleed easily[6].

In 2023, average daily vitamin C intake was 83 mg, with males (84 mg) and females (82 mg) consuming similar amounts. There was also little variation in daily intake among males and females across age groups, falling within the range of 72–93 mg.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin C intake were:

• 100% Fruit and vegetable juices or Fruit and vegetable drinks (29.8% combined)
• Vegetable-based mixed dishes (9.3%)
• Cereal-based mixed dishes (7.6%)
• Broccoli and similar vegetables (6.6%).

A large proportion of vitamin C also came from Fruit products and dishes (17.0%). This included Berry fruit (4.4%), Tropical fruit (3.9%) and Citrus fruit (3.7%).

Overall, average daily vitamin C intake decreased from 100 mg in 2011–12 to 83 mg in 2023. There were significant decreases in all age groups between 12 and 74 years:

• 12–17 years (104 mg in 2011–12 to 91 mg in 2023)
• 18–29 years (105 mg in 2011–12 to 83 mg in 2023)
• 30–49 years (103 mg in 2011–12 to 80 mg in 2023)
• 50–64 years (101 mg in 2011–12 to 83 mg in 2023)
• 65–74 years (106 mg in 2011–12 to 82 mg in 2023).

The decreased intake over the last decade is double for males (-23 mg) than for females (-11 mg), bringing their intakes to similar levels in 2023.

Average energy-adjusted vitamin C intake decreased from 12.6 mg/1,000 kJ in 2011–12 to 11.1 mg/1,000 kJ. This indicates a decline in the make-up of the diet in relation to vitamin C combined with the decrease in overall food consumption that is likely causing absolute vitamin C intake to fall.

Vitamin D is a hormone that helps the body to absorb and retain calcium and phosphorus. Deficiency can lead to rickets in children and osteoporosis in adults. Vitamin D is mainly sourced from exposure to sunlight, but diets including fatty fish, eggs, and fortified margarine and dairy spreads can provide limited amounts[6].

Vitamin D3 equivalents are used to report the total amount of dietary vitamin D intake, to account for the different forms in which it is consumed. In 2023, the average daily vitamin D3 equivalents intake was:

• 4.8 µg for people aged 2 years and over
• higher for males than females (5.4 µg compared to 4.3 µg), including within every age group except children aged 2–4 years
• similar across adult age groups for both adult males (between 5.3 µg and 5.7 µg) and adult females (between 4.2 µg and 4.7 µg).

The average vitamin D intake for 12–17 year olds (4.9 µg) was similar to all adult age groups, but higher than for children aged 2–4 years (3.1 µg) and 5–11 years (4.0 µg).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to vitamin D3 equivalents intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (14.9%)
• Eggs (12.4%)
• Poultry and feathered game (8.6%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (6.4%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (6.2%)
• Dishes where egg is the major ingredient (5.9%).

Calcium is a mineral required for the growth and maintenance of the bones and teeth, as well as the proper functioning of the muscular and cardiovascular systems. Milk and milk-based foods are the richest sources of calcium, but it is also sourced from sardines and other bony fish, legumes and certain nuts. Low calcium intake is associated with low bone density (osteoporosis) which increases the risk of fractured and broken bones[6].

In 2023, average daily calcium intake was:

• 858 mg for males and 724 mg for females
• higher for males than females in most age groups, except for children aged 2–4 years and people aged 65–74 years where the difference was not significant
• similar among males aged 5 years and over (ranging between 830 mg to 867 mg), except for those aged 12–17 years (1,020 mg)
• lower for females aged 18–29 years (662 mg) than any other adult female age group (ranging between 733 mg to 759 mg).

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to calcium intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (17.6%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls prepared at or outside the home (6.3% combined) and Pizza prepared at or outside the home (4.9% combined)
• Dairy milk (14.5%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (10.4%)
• Cheese (6.5%)
• Bread and bread rolls (4.9%)
• Yoghurt (4.3%).

Despite average daily calcium intake remaining stable overall (805 mg in 2011–12 and 791 mg in 2023), calcium intake decreased for adults aged 18–49 years and increased for people aged 65 years and over.

Energy-adjusted calcium intake increased from 2011–12 (98.3 mg/1,000 kJ) to 2023 (100.4 mg/1,000 kJ), indicating an increase in the make-up of the diet from calcium. Females in younger age groups had the opposite trend over the same period, particularly those aged 18–29 years for whom energy-adjusted calcium intake decreased from 102.0 mg/1,000 kJ to 93.0 mg/1,000 kJ.

Iodine is a nutrient essential for producing thyroid hormones which are important for normal growth and development, particularly for the brain. The major dietary sources of iodine include seafood, seaweed, dairy products, and bread made with iodised salt. Inadequate amounts of iodine may lead to a range of conditions, including goitres, hypothyroidism, and in severe cases, intellectual disability[6][15]. Mandatory iodine fortification of salt used in various bread and bread mixes was implemented in Australia in 2009[16].

Iodine is often added to food in the form of iodised salt, both while preparing or cooking at home, or at the table. This additional salt may not be accounted for during dietary recall, so iodine intake may be underestimated. More than three in ten (31.3%) people aged 2 years and over added iodised salt while cooking or preparing food, and 16.3% added iodised salt to food at the table.

Based on their dietary recall, average daily iodine intake was 194.5 µg for males and 158.2 µg for females. Males had higher intakes than females in all age groups from 12–17 years onwards. Intakes were similar for male and female children under 12 years of age.

When comparing across age, average iodine intake was:

• similar among all adult male age groups
• similar among female adult age groups, except for females aged 18–29 years (144.6 µg) who had a lower average iodine intake than any other female adult age group.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to iodine intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (18.1%)
• Dairy milk (13.7%)
• Bread and bread rolls (11.6%)
• Coffee and coffee substitutes (9.7%)
• Water (4.1%).

Average daily iodine intake increased between 2011–12 and 2023 (from 171.6 µg to 176.2 µg), particularly for people aged 50 years and over. However, caution is advised when interpreting these results, due to changes in data processing for iodine intake over this time. For example, the iodine content of milk in AUSNUT was higher in 2023 than in 2011–12. Results from the National Health Measures Survey 2022–24 show a decrease in urinary iodine levels over a similar period.

Average energy-adjusted iodine intake was lower for people aged 18–29 years (20.1 µg/1,000 kJ) than any other age group, except people aged 12–17 years (20.9 µg/1,000 kJ) where the difference was not significant. Energy-adjusted intakes were progressively higher across each older adult age group.

Iron is an essential mineral needed for red blood cells to carry oxygen. Iron deficiency can lead to fatigue, anaemia and decreased immunity. Meat, fish, poultry and wholegrain cereal products contain iron[6].

In 2023, the average daily iron intake was:

• 11.0 mg for males and 8.7 mg for females
• higher for males than females in all age groups, except children aged 2–4 years where the difference was not significant
• similar across age from 5 years onwards, regardless of sex, except males aged 12–17 years (13.5 mg) for whom intake was higher than any other male age group.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to iron intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (17.3%) – including Sandwiches and filled rolls prepared at or outside the home (5.5% combined) and Pasta/noodle dishes prepared at or outside the home (5.2% combined)
• Ready to eat breakfast cereals (14.3%)
• Bread and bread rolls (5.7%)
• Beef, sheep and pork, unprocessed (5.1%)
• Beef, sheep or pork-based mixed dishes (4.2%).

Average daily iron intake decreased from 10.8 mg in 2011–12 to 9.9 mg in 2023. Almost all adult age groups had significant decreases over this period, while intakes for children remained steady.

Over the last decade, energy-adjusted iron intake remained steady (1.3 mg/1,000 kJ in both 2011–12 and 2023) indicating no change in the make-up of the diet in relation to iron, but that the decrease in absolute iron intake is likely a result of the overall general reduction in food consumption.

Sodium is found in different forms in our food but is generally consumed as sodium chloride (salt). Sodium is naturally present in foods such as milk, cream, eggs, meat and shellfish, and salt is often added as a preservative and to enhance flavours. Processed foods, such as snack foods, bacon and other processed meats generally have high sodium levels. High sodium intakes can increase blood pressure which is a risk factor for developing heart and kidney disease[6].

Sodium is often added to food in the form of salt, both while preparing or cooking at home, or at the table. This additional salt may not be accounted for during dietary recall, so sodium intake may be underestimated.

In 2023, average daily sodium intake was 2,684 mg for males and 2,072 mg for females. Intake was highest for children aged 12–17 years and was progressively lower across older age groups.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to sodium intake were:

• Cereal-based mixed dishes (24.6%)
• Bread and bread rolls (7.0%)
• Processed meat (5.2%)
• Poultry-based mixed dishes (5.2%)
• Pastries (4.4%).

Average daily sodium intake remained similar between 2011–12 (2,404 mg) and 2023 (2,375 mg), although there was:

• an increase among people aged 12–17 years (from 2,635 mg to 2,903 mg)
• a small decrease among people aged 30–49 (from 2,551 mg to 2,464 mg).

Energy-adjusted sodium intakes increased slightly over this time (from 289.4 mg/1,000 kJ in 2011–12 to 295.3 mg/1,000 kJ in 2023), particularly for adults. This indicates an increase in the sodium content of diets, despite overall reductions in food consumption.

Based on responses about additional salt use, almost four in five (78.1%) people aged 2 years and over added salt while cooking or preparing food, and 45.5% added salt to food at the table. The frequency of adding salt to food, including either very often, occasionally, or rarely also varied.

In 2023, average daily caffeine intake was 161 mg for males and 145 mg for females. Average caffeine intake was: 

• higher for adults than children (186 mg compared to 22 mg)
• lowest among male adults aged 18–29 years (142 mg) and higher in subsequent ages up until 50–64 (223 mg) where intake was similar to all older age groups
• lower among females aged 18–29 years (118 mg) than any other female adult age group
• 43 mg for children aged 12–17 years, comparable to the amount in a can of cola flavoured soft drink.

In the adult population, average daily caffeine intake increased from 158 mg in 2011–12 to 186 mg in 2023. Caffeine intake increased for all adult age groups over this period.

The leading AUSNUT sub-major food groups contributing to caffeine intake for were:

• Coffee and coffee substitutes (73.7% for adults and 27.3% for children)
• Tea (14.6% for adults and 17.3% for children)
• Soft drinks and flavoured mineral waters (5.0% for adults and 25.8% for children).